Goldsmithing technologies, metallurgical traditions and funerary rituals in the Saka societies of the Eurasian Steppe during the Iron Age (c. 900 - 500 BCE)

This dissertation focuses on the goldsmithing technologies of the Early Iron Age (900–500 BCE) Saka population, who inhabited the territories of Central Asia, Kazakhstan, and Western and South Siberia from around 900 BCE. They were a semi-nomadic, horse-riding population that was part of the pan-Scythian world, renowned for manufacturing complex gold objects in the famous “Animal Style” for the elite strata of society. These included costume plaques, microbeads, torcs, and gold-decorated armour. Over 300 gold objects, along with several dozen bronze and iron artefacts, originating from two large Early Iron Age necropolises in East Kazakhstan, were analysed using techniques including pXRF, SEM-EDS, 3D microscopy, micro-CT, and experimental archaeology. The collection studied consists of archaeological assemblages from six Saka burials and three Saka hoards. Two of the burials are unique: one is a double burial from Kurgan 4 Eleke Sazy II, which was found intact—a rarity; the other is Kurgan 16 Shilikty 1, which was recently dated to the end of the 8th century BCE, making it the earliest gold-containing Saka burial. The other burials and hoards date from the 6th to the 4th centuries BCE. The researched collection combines gold objects and jewellery from both the earliest and later periods, providing an excellent opportunity to investigate the development and evolution of Saka goldsmithing traditions over a span of 600 years. Some traditions and technologies were abandoned, while others survived and successfully spread to other regions. The research revealed two types of gold objects as core elements of Saka elite festive costumes: plaques and microbeads. These elements were produced serially, in large quantities, and in great variety, with their production technologies being standardised. Their fixing mechanisms, known as "flipped" loops, were universal and implied threading rather than individual sewing. Various embossing, casting, and cutting techniques were employed in the production of the plaques. A unique joining technique employing tin was used by Saka goldsmiths for the production of gold microbeads. Tin-gold intermetallic compounds (tin-gold IMC) were detected in approximately 80% of all the researched gold objects, indicating probable local alluvial/placer gold sources in East Kazakhstan. A unique hollow cone granulation technique, known exclusively in the Eurasian steppe regions, was also revealed, alongside traditional gold granulation. Within 100–150 years (8th–6th centuries BCE), Saka goldsmiths created and developed unique steppe goldsmithing traditions that perfectly adapted to societal needs. These traditions were produced exclusively by local Saka goldsmiths during a period of experimentation and fine-tuning of techniques, meeting both broader societal expectations and, more specifically, the requirements of the Saka elite. The research revealed that the Saka elite controlled highly skilled goldsmiths, enabling them to specialise in goldsmithing and produce exquisite, prestige, and luxurious gold objects that were intensive in terms of time and labour. It is likely that this control was not confined to the territories of East Kazakhstan but also extended to Central and South-East Kazakhstan, as many exquisitely made gold objects found outside East Kazakhstan, show visible tin-gold IMCs on their surfaces. As a result, these traditions flourished and spread to the territories of the Sarmatian, Scythian, and Tagar cultures in the Eurasian Steppe over the subsequent millennia. Moreover, Saka goldsmithing influenced neighbouring agricultural societies, including China and Persia, both technologically and aesthetically. The situation changed around the 6th century BCE with the collapse of the Saka hierarchical system. This was probably caused by several external factors, such as the Saka-Achaemenid wars. These changes led to significant shifts in Saka goldsmithing. Gold from different sources, which were more argentiferous, and the use of artificial gold alloys with elevated copper levels, began to appear in the 6th century BCE. Specialised goldsmithing most likely ceased to exist, and local goldsmiths shifted to multi-crafting, producing gold objects of expedient quality, with an increase in the variety of produced objects. However, it is likely that they continued to produce high-quality gold objects as a means of forming and maintaining ties within and between communities.

Name dc:type.qualificationname

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Level dc:type.qualificationlevel

Doctoral

Grantor dc:publisher.institution

University of Cambridge

Year dc:date.issued

2025

Author dc:creator

• Amirova, Saltanat

Advisor dc:contributor.advisor

• Martinon-Torres, Marcos

• Animal style gold plaque
• Early Iron Age Eurasian steppe pastoralism
• Gold microbead
• Gold plaque
• Goldsmithing
• Nomadic craftsmanship
• Saka
• Theory of nomadism
• Tin-containing joint
• Tin-gold intermetallic compound (tin-gold IMC)

Licence

• https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstreams/c7a032db-892c-42a1-9bce-e2e67ac0cf49/download
• http://purl.org/NET/rdflicense/allrightsreserved

DOI dc:identifier.doi

https://doi.org/10.17863/CAM.118677

OAI identifier oai:identifier

oai:www.repository.cam.ac.uk:1810/384796