{"id":{"repo_id":"vt","oai_identifier":"oai:vtechworks.lib.vt.edu:10919/140946"},"canonical_url":"https://search.dev.ndltd.org/etd/vt/oai:vtechworks.lib.vt.edu:10919/140946","repository":{"repo_id":"vt","name":"Virginia Tech","base_url":"https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/oai/request"},"display":{"title":"From Road to Laboratory: A Data-Driven Framework for Field-Aligned Simulation of Braking Dynamics Toward Sustainable Unit Load Packaging","abstract":"Modern distribution packaging is increasingly expected to meet both safety and sustainability targets. However, existing laboratory test methods for evaluating unit load stability still fall short of replicating the dynamic forces that occur during freight transportation. This study addressed that gap with an overarching objective to advance performance based and resource efficient packaging design by (1) characterizing field measured long duration horizontal forces across major freight modes, (2) developing a data driven method for generating unit load stability test profiles, and (3) proposing mode specific composite profiles that can be executed on common test equipment. Longitudinal acceleration data were collected in controlled settings using an instrumented box truck and in uncontrolled settings, multi-day commercial shipments spanning long-haul truck, container-on-train, and trailer-on-flatcar segments. Unit load response to braking events was evaluated in controlled tests using a repositionable unit load avatar designed to match the natural frequency range of typical commercial unit loads. Controlled braking tests and statistical analysis demonstrated that unit load elastic deformation is governed primarily by natural frequency, rise duration, and peak deceleration at the end of the rise phase, whereas steady state duration has statistically significant but comparatively minor influence. Analysis of the field data showed that the magnitude, duration, and occurrence of long duration longitudinal events differ systematically by mode and by segment of the route. Intermodal rail segments generated relatively high percentile longitudinal accelerations with shorter event durations, while over the road truck segments produced lower peak accelerations but substantially longer events, often exceeding several tens of seconds. These findings enabled the development of a simplified test profile structure that preserves deformation critical parameters while reducing steady state duration so that realistic profiles can be implemented within the stroke limits of conventional horizontal acceleration sleds. Building on these insights, the study introduced composite test profiles for long haul truck and rail operations that reflect the statistics of the most critical measured events. Collectively, the results support the inference that unit load stability can be evaluated using profiles that are both representative of actual transportation dynamics and operationally compatible with existing test systems. This can enable more precise specification of stretch wrap or other load stabilizers, reducing unnecessary material use and environmental burden while maintaining or improving load safety, and moves distribution packaging toward a more sustainable, performance-based engineering practice.","abstract_html":"Modern distribution packaging is increasingly expected to meet both safety and sustainability targets. However, existing laboratory test methods for evaluating unit load stability still fall short of replicating the dynamic forces that occur during freight transportation. This study addressed that gap with an overarching objective to advance performance based and resource efficient packaging design by (1) characterizing field measured long duration horizontal forces across major freight modes, (2) developing a data driven method for generating unit load stability test profiles, and (3) proposing mode specific composite profiles that can be executed on common test equipment. Longitudinal acceleration data were collected in controlled settings using an instrumented box truck and in uncontrolled settings, multi-day commercial shipments spanning long-haul truck, container-on-train, and trailer-on-flatcar segments. Unit load response to braking events was evaluated in controlled tests using a repositionable unit load avatar designed to match the natural frequency range of typical commercial unit loads. Controlled braking tests and statistical analysis demonstrated that unit load elastic deformation is governed primarily by natural frequency, rise duration, and peak deceleration at the end of the rise phase, whereas steady state duration has statistically significant but comparatively minor influence. Analysis of the field data showed that the magnitude, duration, and occurrence of long duration longitudinal events differ systematically by mode and by segment of the route. Intermodal rail segments generated relatively high percentile longitudinal accelerations with shorter event durations, while over the road truck segments produced lower peak accelerations but substantially longer events, often exceeding several tens of seconds. These findings enabled the development of a simplified test profile structure that preserves deformation critical parameters while reducing steady state duration so that realistic profiles can be implemented within the stroke limits of conventional horizontal acceleration sleds. Building on these insights, the study introduced composite test profiles for long haul truck and rail operations that reflect the statistics of the most critical measured events. Collectively, the results support the inference that unit load stability can be evaluated using profiles that are both representative of actual transportation dynamics and operationally compatible with existing test systems. This can enable more precise specification of stretch wrap or other load stabilizers, reducing unnecessary material use and environmental burden while maintaining or improving load safety, and moves distribution packaging toward a more sustainable, performance-based engineering practice.","abstract_has_math":false,"creators":["Kim, Saewhan"],"institution":"Virginia Tech","degree_name":"Doctor of Philosophy","degree_level":"doctoral","degree_discipline":"Forest Products","degree_department":"Forest Resources and Environmental Conservation","school":null,"contributors":[],"advisors":[],"committee_chairs":["Horvath, Laszlo"],"committee_members":["White, Marshall S.","Dunno, Kyle","Ge, Changfeng","Molina Montoya, Eduardo"],"year":2026,"date_issued":"2026-01-22","date_published":"2026-01-22","updated_at":"2026-07-22T22:20:29Z","subjects":["Load Stability","Unit Load","Optimization","Distribution Packaging","Packaging","Sustainability"],"languages":["en"],"rights":["In Copyright"],"rights_urls":["http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/"],"identifier_entries":[{"key":"dc:identifier.other","label":"Dc Identifier Other","values":["vt_gsexam:45413"],"render_values":[{"text":"vt_gsexam:45413","href":null,"code":true}]}]},"links":{"outbound_url":"https://hdl.handle.net/10919/140946","outbound_label":"Handle","outbound_source":"dc:identifier.uri"},"metadata_groups":[{"id":"people","label":"People","entries":[{"key":"dc:contributor.committeechair","label":"Committee Chair","values":["Horvath, Laszlo"]},{"key":"dc:contributor.committeemember","label":"Committee Member","values":["White, Marshall S.","Dunno, Kyle","Ge, Changfeng","Molina Montoya, Eduardo"]},{"key":"dc:contributor.department","label":"Department","values":["Forest Resources and Environmental Conservation"]},{"key":"dc:creator","label":"Author","values":["Kim, Saewhan"]}]},{"id":"academic_context","label":"Academic Context","entries":[{"key":"dc:date.accessioned","label":"Dc Date Accessioned","values":["2026-01-23T09:00:18Z"]},{"key":"dc:date.available","label":"Dc Date Available","values":["2026-01-23T09:00:18Z"]},{"key":"dc:date.issued","label":"Date","values":["2026-01-22"]},{"key":"dc:publisher","label":"Institution","values":["Virginia Tech"]},{"key":"dc:type","label":"Dc Type","values":["Dissertation"]},{"key":"thesis:degree_discipline","label":"Discipline","values":["Forest Products"]},{"key":"thesis:degree_level","label":"Degree Level","values":["doctoral"]},{"key":"thesis:degree_name","label":"Degree Name","values":["Doctor of Philosophy"]},{"key":"thesis:institution_name","label":"Thesis Institution Name","values":["Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University"]}]},{"id":"subjects_keywords","label":"Subjects and Keywords","entries":[{"key":"dc:subject","label":"Dc Subject","values":["Load Stability","Unit Load","Optimization","Distribution Packaging","Packaging","Sustainability"]}]},{"id":"language_rights","label":"Language and Rights","entries":[{"key":"dc:language.iso","label":"Language (ISO)","values":["en"]},{"key":"dc:rights","label":"Dc Rights","values":["In Copyright"]},{"key":"dc:rights.uri","label":"Rights URI","values":["http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/"]}]},{"id":"identifiers","label":"Identifiers","entries":[{"key":"dc:identifier.other","label":"Dc Identifier Other","values":["vt_gsexam:45413"]},{"key":"dc:identifier.uri","label":"Identifier URI","values":["https://hdl.handle.net/10919/140946"]}]},{"id":"additional","label":"Additional Metadata","entries":[{"key":"dc:description.abstract","label":"Abstract","values":["Modern distribution packaging is increasingly expected to meet both safety and sustainability targets. However, existing laboratory test methods for evaluating unit load stability still fall short of replicating the dynamic forces that occur during freight transportation. This study addressed that gap with an overarching objective to advance performance based and resource efficient packaging design by (1) characterizing field measured long duration horizontal forces across major freight modes, (2) developing a data driven method for generating unit load stability test profiles, and (3) proposing mode specific composite profiles that can be executed on common test equipment. Longitudinal acceleration data were collected in controlled settings using an instrumented box truck and in uncontrolled settings, multi-day commercial shipments spanning long-haul truck, container-on-train, and trailer-on-flatcar segments. Unit load response to braking events was evaluated in controlled tests using a repositionable unit load avatar designed to match the natural frequency range of typical commercial unit loads. Controlled braking tests and statistical analysis demonstrated that unit load elastic deformation is governed primarily by natural frequency, rise duration, and peak deceleration at the end of the rise phase, whereas steady state duration has statistically significant but comparatively minor influence. Analysis of the field data showed that the magnitude, duration, and occurrence of long duration longitudinal events differ systematically by mode and by segment of the route. Intermodal rail segments generated relatively high percentile longitudinal accelerations with shorter event durations, while over the road truck segments produced lower peak accelerations but substantially longer events, often exceeding several tens of seconds. These findings enabled the development of a simplified test profile structure that preserves deformation critical parameters while reducing steady state duration so that realistic profiles can be implemented within the stroke limits of conventional horizontal acceleration sleds. Building on these insights, the study introduced composite test profiles for long haul truck and rail operations that reflect the statistics of the most critical measured events. Collectively, the results support the inference that unit load stability can be evaluated using profiles that are both representative of actual transportation dynamics and operationally compatible with existing test systems. This can enable more precise specification of stretch wrap or other load stabilizers, reducing unnecessary material use and environmental burden while maintaining or improving load safety, and moves distribution packaging toward a more sustainable, performance-based engineering practice."]},{"key":"dc:description.abstractgeneral","label":"General Abstract","values":["Companies ship billions of cases of food, beverages, and consumer goods every year, and those products must be kept stable on pallets, so they do not shift, collapse, or cause accidents. To be safe, many businesses rely on conservative tests and extra packaging material, especially plastic stretch wrap, \"just in case.\" This approach can prevent damage, but it also leads to unnecessary waste and higher costs. This study set out to help the packaging industry move toward safer and more sustainable practices by studying the actual forces that loaded trucks and trains experience on the road, then turning those measurements into practical tests that engineers can actually run in the laboratory. The authors instrumented full scale shipments and recorded how unit loads were pushed and pulled during typical operations, especially during braking, accelerating, and changes in speed. These measurements showed that the forces acting on loads during transport are not just short, violent shocks, but often longer, gentler pushes that can last many seconds. The patterns also differed between long haul trucks and trains, and between the main journey and local pickup and delivery. A special unit load simulator, designed to behave like common product unit loads, was then used to see how much the load actually deflects and leans during controlled braking. By comparing many tests, the study identified which parts of the braking motion matter most for unit load movement and which parts have little effect. Using these insights, this study introduced new test profiles that enable laboratory equipment to reproduce the types of horizontal forces measured in actual transportation. Instead of relying on conservative test profiles that emphasize extreme, short-duration events, the profiles developed here capture the long-duration, lower-magnitude forces that actually drive unit load deformation in trucks and intermodal rail. The research produced two forms of laboratory-ready profiles: maximum velocity change composites that may represent the full severity and shape of measured events, and simplified composites that preserve the deformation-critical characteristics, such as rise duration and peak acceleration, while shortening the overall motion to fit within the limitations of standard acceleration sleds. These profiles provide packaging engineers with a more realistic basis for evaluating stretch wraps and other load stabilizers, enabling more precise material use that maintains safety while reducing unnecessary plastic consumption and environmental impact."]},{"key":"dc:description.degree","label":"Dc Description Degree","values":["Doctor of Philosophy"]},{"key":"dc:format.medium","label":"Dc Format Medium","values":["ETD"]},{"key":"dc:title","label":"Title","values":["From Road to Laboratory: A Data-Driven Framework for Field-Aligned Simulation of Braking Dynamics Toward Sustainable Unit Load Packaging"]}]}],"canonical_facts":{"dc:contributor.committeechair":["Horvath, Laszlo"],"dc:contributor.committeemember":["White, Marshall S.","Dunno, Kyle","Ge, Changfeng","Molina Montoya, Eduardo"],"dc:contributor.department":["Forest Resources and Environmental Conservation"],"dc:creator":["Kim, Saewhan"],"dc:date.accessioned":["2026-01-23T09:00:18Z"],"dc:date.available":["2026-01-23T09:00:18Z"],"dc:date.issued":["2026-01-22"],"dc:description.abstract":["Modern distribution packaging is increasingly expected to meet both safety and sustainability targets. However, existing laboratory test methods for evaluating unit load stability still fall short of replicating the dynamic forces that occur during freight transportation. This study addressed that gap with an overarching objective to advance performance based and resource efficient packaging design by (1) characterizing field measured long duration horizontal forces across major freight modes, (2) developing a data driven method for generating unit load stability test profiles, and (3) proposing mode specific composite profiles that can be executed on common test equipment. Longitudinal acceleration data were collected in controlled settings using an instrumented box truck and in uncontrolled settings, multi-day commercial shipments spanning long-haul truck, container-on-train, and trailer-on-flatcar segments. Unit load response to braking events was evaluated in controlled tests using a repositionable unit load avatar designed to match the natural frequency range of typical commercial unit loads. Controlled braking tests and statistical analysis demonstrated that unit load elastic deformation is governed primarily by natural frequency, rise duration, and peak deceleration at the end of the rise phase, whereas steady state duration has statistically significant but comparatively minor influence. Analysis of the field data showed that the magnitude, duration, and occurrence of long duration longitudinal events differ systematically by mode and by segment of the route. Intermodal rail segments generated relatively high percentile longitudinal accelerations with shorter event durations, while over the road truck segments produced lower peak accelerations but substantially longer events, often exceeding several tens of seconds. These findings enabled the development of a simplified test profile structure that preserves deformation critical parameters while reducing steady state duration so that realistic profiles can be implemented within the stroke limits of conventional horizontal acceleration sleds. Building on these insights, the study introduced composite test profiles for long haul truck and rail operations that reflect the statistics of the most critical measured events. Collectively, the results support the inference that unit load stability can be evaluated using profiles that are both representative of actual transportation dynamics and operationally compatible with existing test systems. This can enable more precise specification of stretch wrap or other load stabilizers, reducing unnecessary material use and environmental burden while maintaining or improving load safety, and moves distribution packaging toward a more sustainable, performance-based engineering practice."],"dc:description.abstractgeneral":["Companies ship billions of cases of food, beverages, and consumer goods every year, and those products must be kept stable on pallets, so they do not shift, collapse, or cause accidents. To be safe, many businesses rely on conservative tests and extra packaging material, especially plastic stretch wrap, \"just in case.\" This approach can prevent damage, but it also leads to unnecessary waste and higher costs. This study set out to help the packaging industry move toward safer and more sustainable practices by studying the actual forces that loaded trucks and trains experience on the road, then turning those measurements into practical tests that engineers can actually run in the laboratory. The authors instrumented full scale shipments and recorded how unit loads were pushed and pulled during typical operations, especially during braking, accelerating, and changes in speed. These measurements showed that the forces acting on loads during transport are not just short, violent shocks, but often longer, gentler pushes that can last many seconds. The patterns also differed between long haul trucks and trains, and between the main journey and local pickup and delivery. A special unit load simulator, designed to behave like common product unit loads, was then used to see how much the load actually deflects and leans during controlled braking. By comparing many tests, the study identified which parts of the braking motion matter most for unit load movement and which parts have little effect. Using these insights, this study introduced new test profiles that enable laboratory equipment to reproduce the types of horizontal forces measured in actual transportation. Instead of relying on conservative test profiles that emphasize extreme, short-duration events, the profiles developed here capture the long-duration, lower-magnitude forces that actually drive unit load deformation in trucks and intermodal rail. The research produced two forms of laboratory-ready profiles: maximum velocity change composites that may represent the full severity and shape of measured events, and simplified composites that preserve the deformation-critical characteristics, such as rise duration and peak acceleration, while shortening the overall motion to fit within the limitations of standard acceleration sleds. These profiles provide packaging engineers with a more realistic basis for evaluating stretch wraps and other load stabilizers, enabling more precise material use that maintains safety while reducing unnecessary plastic consumption and environmental impact."],"dc:description.degree":["Doctor of Philosophy"],"dc:format.medium":["ETD"],"dc:identifier.other":["vt_gsexam:45413"],"dc:identifier.uri":["https://hdl.handle.net/10919/140946"],"dc:language.iso":["en"],"dc:publisher":["Virginia Tech"],"dc:rights":["In Copyright"],"dc:rights.uri":["http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/"],"dc:subject":["Load Stability","Unit Load","Optimization","Distribution Packaging","Packaging","Sustainability"],"dc:title":["From Road to Laboratory: A Data-Driven Framework for Field-Aligned Simulation of Braking Dynamics Toward Sustainable Unit Load Packaging"],"dc:type":["Dissertation"],"thesis:degree_discipline":["Forest Products"],"thesis:degree_level":["doctoral"],"thesis:degree_name":["Doctor of Philosophy"],"thesis:institution_name":["Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University"]},"updated_at":"2026-07-22T22:20:29Z"}