{"id":{"repo_id":"utswmed","oai_identifier":"oai:utswmed-ir.tdl.org:2152.5/10831"},"canonical_url":"https://search.dev.ndltd.org/etd/utswmed/oai:utswmed-ir.tdl.org:2152.5/10831","repository":{"repo_id":"utswmed","name":"University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center","base_url":"https://utswmed-ir.tdl.org/server/oai/request"},"display":{"title":"Femoral Biomechanical Analyses and 3D Printed Femoral Diaphysis for Biomechanical Simulation","abstract":"BACKGROUND: The biomechanical properties of adult human femurs have significant clinical and surgical implications. Despite an extensive body of literature, a consolidated analysis of those material properties has not been firmly established. Furthermore, the results and limitations of cadaveric studies, the strengths and shortcomings of synthetic femurs, and the potential of emerging technologies warrant a comprehensive exploration. After exploring these three areas, the possibility of addressing the limitations implicit in cadaveric, composite (Sawbones), and innovative biomechanical analyses of femurs is explored by developing and validating a cheaper, faster, and customizable alternative model using 3D printing. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this research was to identify and describe the current state of biomechanical analyses of the human femur, with their limitations, and develop parameters for a 3D printed diaphyseal segment that emulates the flexural biomechanical response of the normal human femur and addresses those limitations. METHODS: The Embase, Medline, and Web of Science databases were systematically reviewed from inception through February 2023 for biomechanical studies of adult human femurs. The Quality Appraisal for Cadaveric Studies scale was used to evaluate the methodological quality of cadaveric studies, the instrument for methodological quality assessment of single-subject finite element analysis was used to assess the quality of computational and other biomechanical analyses. Upon application of all inclusion and exclusion criteria, 42 qualifying studies remained. These were categorized as cadaveric, composite, or modern/innovative. Femoral material properties were categorized as tensile, compressive, or specimen-specific. Tensile parameters included elastic modulus, yield strength, ultimate strength, yield strain, and ultimate strain. Compressive parameters included compressive modulus, yield stress, and ultimate stress. Specimen-specific parameters included stiffness, failure load, and bending moment at failure. Computational studies included model geometry, finite element modeling techniques, validation mechanisms, and loading characteristics. Polylactic acid models of normal human femoral diaphyses were then designed using 3D printing technology to create inexpensive, accessible, and reproducible specimens for flexural biomechanical studies. These models were subjected to three-point bending, and their response curves plotted. The anisotropic mechanical behavior of the 3D printed femurs and the influence of printing orientations, infill density, wall layers, resolution, and other printing parameters were explored to develop parameters that can be generalized for future biomechanical analyses. RESULTS: A total of 723 cadaveric specimens were evaluated, with a weighted average tensile modulus of 10.3 ± 1.47 gigapascals, compressive modulus of 683.3 ± 290.3 megapascals, and ultimate stress of 2.24 ± 0.87 megapascals. Synthetic femurs, including 3D printed and composite structures, exhibited substantial methodological heterogeneity, and aggregate data are presented herein. Modern technologies used in the biomechanical analysis of the human femur include finite-element analysis, x-ray/computed tomography-based studies, fractal analysis, and scanning electron microscopy. These studies showcased a diverse range of parameters studied. Optimal parameters for 3D printed polylactic acid diaphyseal femurs demonstrated that 5% infill density, 2 to 4 wall layers, and a resolution of 200 microns resulted in a flexural strength of 184.8 ± 8.18 megapascals. Models with 20% infill density and 6 wall layers resulted in a flexural modulus of 18.54 ± 0.543 gigapascals. These results emulate the biomechanical response of the normal human femur as reported in the target study. CONCLUSION: The systematic review underscores substantial heterogeneity among femoral biomechanical studies. The standardized values derived from cadaveric studies provide baseline biomechanical values for surgical populations. The variety of research methodologies in all domains necessitates greater standardization in experimental setups and outcome reporting. A validated and comprehensive library of biomechanical values would be beneficial for future studies. This study demonstrates that physiologically relevant biomechanical behavior can be achieved from PLA-derived, 3D printed femoral diaphyses. Some limitations of cadaveric, synthetic/composite, and virtual biomechanical analyzes are addressed by the validated 3D printed models, namely: cost, ethical values, availability, and customizability to pathology.","abstract_html":"BACKGROUND: The biomechanical properties of adult human femurs have significant clinical and surgical implications. Despite an extensive body of literature, a consolidated analysis of those material properties has not been firmly established. Furthermore, the results and limitations of cadaveric studies, the strengths and shortcomings of synthetic femurs, and the potential of emerging technologies warrant a comprehensive exploration. After exploring these three areas, the possibility of addressing the limitations implicit in cadaveric, composite (Sawbones), and innovative biomechanical analyses of femurs is explored by developing and validating a cheaper, faster, and customizable alternative model using 3D printing. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this research was to identify and describe the current state of biomechanical analyses of the human femur, with their limitations, and develop parameters for a 3D printed diaphyseal segment that emulates the flexural biomechanical response of the normal human femur and addresses those limitations. METHODS: The Embase, Medline, and Web of Science databases were systematically reviewed from inception through February 2023 for biomechanical studies of adult human femurs. The Quality Appraisal for Cadaveric Studies scale was used to evaluate the methodological quality of cadaveric studies, the instrument for methodological quality assessment of single-subject finite element analysis was used to assess the quality of computational and other biomechanical analyses. Upon application of all inclusion and exclusion criteria, 42 qualifying studies remained. These were categorized as cadaveric, composite, or modern/innovative. Femoral material properties were categorized as tensile, compressive, or specimen-specific. Tensile parameters included elastic modulus, yield strength, ultimate strength, yield strain, and ultimate strain. Compressive parameters included compressive modulus, yield stress, and ultimate stress. Specimen-specific parameters included stiffness, failure load, and bending moment at failure. Computational studies included model geometry, finite element modeling techniques, validation mechanisms, and loading characteristics. Polylactic acid models of normal human femoral diaphyses were then designed using 3D printing technology to create inexpensive, accessible, and reproducible specimens for flexural biomechanical studies. These models were subjected to three-point bending, and their response curves plotted. The anisotropic mechanical behavior of the 3D printed femurs and the influence of printing orientations, infill density, wall layers, resolution, and other printing parameters were explored to develop parameters that can be generalized for future biomechanical analyses. RESULTS: A total of 723 cadaveric specimens were evaluated, with a weighted average tensile modulus of 10.3 ± 1.47 gigapascals, compressive modulus of 683.3 ± 290.3 megapascals, and ultimate stress of 2.24 ± 0.87 megapascals. Synthetic femurs, including 3D printed and composite structures, exhibited substantial methodological heterogeneity, and aggregate data are presented herein. Modern technologies used in the biomechanical analysis of the human femur include finite-element analysis, x-ray/computed tomography-based studies, fractal analysis, and scanning electron microscopy. These studies showcased a diverse range of parameters studied. Optimal parameters for 3D printed polylactic acid diaphyseal femurs demonstrated that 5% infill density, 2 to 4 wall layers, and a resolution of 200 microns resulted in a flexural strength of 184.8 ± 8.18 megapascals. Models with 20% infill density and 6 wall layers resulted in a flexural modulus of 18.54 ± 0.543 gigapascals. These results emulate the biomechanical response of the normal human femur as reported in the target study. CONCLUSION: The systematic review underscores substantial heterogeneity among femoral biomechanical studies. The standardized values derived from cadaveric studies provide baseline biomechanical values for surgical populations. The variety of research methodologies in all domains necessitates greater standardization in experimental setups and outcome reporting. A validated and comprehensive library of biomechanical values would be beneficial for future studies. This study demonstrates that physiologically relevant biomechanical behavior can be achieved from PLA-derived, 3D printed femoral diaphyses. Some limitations of cadaveric, synthetic/composite, and virtual biomechanical analyzes are addressed by the validated 3D printed models, namely: cost, ethical values, availability, and customizability to pathology.","abstract_has_math":false,"creators":["Oldham, Blaine Mitchell"],"institution":null,"degree_name":null,"degree_level":null,"degree_discipline":null,"degree_department":null,"school":null,"contributors":["Weinschenk, Robert C.","Samade, Richard","Li, Wei"],"advisors":[],"committee_chairs":[],"committee_members":[],"year":2026,"date_issued":"2026-06-15T19:55:14Z","date_published":"2026-06-15T19:55:14Z","updated_at":"2026-07-24T05:52:38Z","subjects":["Femur","Printing, Three-Dimensional","Biomechanical Phenomena","Diaphyses"],"languages":["en"],"rights":[],"rights_urls":[],"identifier_entries":[{"key":"dc:identifier","label":"Identifier","values":["1596184966"],"render_values":[{"text":"1596184966","href":null,"code":true}]}]},"links":{"outbound_url":"https://hdl.handle.net/2152.5/10831","outbound_label":"Handle","outbound_source":"dc:identifier"},"metadata_groups":[{"id":"people","label":"People","entries":[{"key":"dc:contributor","label":"Contributor","values":["Weinschenk, Robert C.","Samade, Richard","Li, Wei"]},{"key":"dc:creator","label":"Author","values":["Oldham, Blaine Mitchell"]}]},{"id":"academic_context","label":"Academic Context","entries":[{"key":"dc:date","label":"Dc Date","values":["2026-06-15T19:55:14Z","2024-05","May 2024"]},{"key":"dc:type","label":"Dc Type","values":["Thesis","text"]}]},{"id":"subjects_keywords","label":"Subjects and Keywords","entries":[{"key":"dc:subject","label":"Dc Subject","values":["Femur","Printing, Three-Dimensional","Biomechanical Phenomena","Diaphyses"]}]},{"id":"language_rights","label":"Language and Rights","entries":[{"key":"dc:language","label":"Dc Language","values":["en"]}]},{"id":"identifiers","label":"Identifiers","entries":[{"key":"dc:identifier","label":"Identifier","values":["https://hdl.handle.net/2152.5/10831","1596184966"]}]},{"id":"additional","label":"Additional Metadata","entries":[{"key":"dc:description","label":"Description","values":["BACKGROUND: The biomechanical properties of adult human femurs have significant clinical and surgical implications. Despite an extensive body of literature, a consolidated analysis of those material properties has not been firmly established. Furthermore, the results and limitations of cadaveric studies, the strengths and shortcomings of synthetic femurs, and the potential of emerging technologies warrant a comprehensive exploration. After exploring these three areas, the possibility of addressing the limitations implicit in cadaveric, composite (Sawbones), and innovative biomechanical analyses of femurs is explored by developing and validating a cheaper, faster, and customizable alternative model using 3D printing. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this research was to identify and describe the current state of biomechanical analyses of the human femur, with their limitations, and develop parameters for a 3D printed diaphyseal segment that emulates the flexural biomechanical response of the normal human femur and addresses those limitations. METHODS: The Embase, Medline, and Web of Science databases were systematically reviewed from inception through February 2023 for biomechanical studies of adult human femurs. The Quality Appraisal for Cadaveric Studies scale was used to evaluate the methodological quality of cadaveric studies, the instrument for methodological quality assessment of single-subject finite element analysis was used to assess the quality of computational and other biomechanical analyses. Upon application of all inclusion and exclusion criteria, 42 qualifying studies remained. These were categorized as cadaveric, composite, or modern/innovative. Femoral material properties were categorized as tensile, compressive, or specimen-specific. Tensile parameters included elastic modulus, yield strength, ultimate strength, yield strain, and ultimate strain. Compressive parameters included compressive modulus, yield stress, and ultimate stress. Specimen-specific parameters included stiffness, failure load, and bending moment at failure. Computational studies included model geometry, finite element modeling techniques, validation mechanisms, and loading characteristics. Polylactic acid models of normal human femoral diaphyses were then designed using 3D printing technology to create inexpensive, accessible, and reproducible specimens for flexural biomechanical studies. These models were subjected to three-point bending, and their response curves plotted. The anisotropic mechanical behavior of the 3D printed femurs and the influence of printing orientations, infill density, wall layers, resolution, and other printing parameters were explored to develop parameters that can be generalized for future biomechanical analyses. RESULTS: A total of 723 cadaveric specimens were evaluated, with a weighted average tensile modulus of 10.3 ± 1.47 gigapascals, compressive modulus of 683.3 ± 290.3 megapascals, and ultimate stress of 2.24 ± 0.87 megapascals. Synthetic femurs, including 3D printed and composite structures, exhibited substantial methodological heterogeneity, and aggregate data are presented herein. Modern technologies used in the biomechanical analysis of the human femur include finite-element analysis, x-ray/computed tomography-based studies, fractal analysis, and scanning electron microscopy. These studies showcased a diverse range of parameters studied. Optimal parameters for 3D printed polylactic acid diaphyseal femurs demonstrated that 5% infill density, 2 to 4 wall layers, and a resolution of 200 microns resulted in a flexural strength of 184.8 ± 8.18 megapascals. Models with 20% infill density and 6 wall layers resulted in a flexural modulus of 18.54 ± 0.543 gigapascals. These results emulate the biomechanical response of the normal human femur as reported in the target study. CONCLUSION: The systematic review underscores substantial heterogeneity among femoral biomechanical studies. The standardized values derived from cadaveric studies provide baseline biomechanical values for surgical populations. The variety of research methodologies in all domains necessitates greater standardization in experimental setups and outcome reporting. A validated and comprehensive library of biomechanical values would be beneficial for future studies. This study demonstrates that physiologically relevant biomechanical behavior can be achieved from PLA-derived, 3D printed femoral diaphyses. Some limitations of cadaveric, synthetic/composite, and virtual biomechanical analyzes are addressed by the validated 3D printed models, namely: cost, ethical values, availability, and customizability to pathology."]},{"key":"dc:format","label":"Dc Format","values":["application/pdf"]},{"key":"dc:title","label":"Title","values":["Femoral Biomechanical Analyses and 3D Printed Femoral Diaphysis for Biomechanical Simulation"]}]}],"canonical_facts":{"dc:contributor":["Weinschenk, Robert C.","Samade, Richard","Li, Wei"],"dc:creator":["Oldham, Blaine Mitchell"],"dc:date":["2026-06-15T19:55:14Z","2024-05","May 2024"],"dc:description":["BACKGROUND: The biomechanical properties of adult human femurs have significant clinical and surgical implications. Despite an extensive body of literature, a consolidated analysis of those material properties has not been firmly established. Furthermore, the results and limitations of cadaveric studies, the strengths and shortcomings of synthetic femurs, and the potential of emerging technologies warrant a comprehensive exploration. After exploring these three areas, the possibility of addressing the limitations implicit in cadaveric, composite (Sawbones), and innovative biomechanical analyses of femurs is explored by developing and validating a cheaper, faster, and customizable alternative model using 3D printing. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this research was to identify and describe the current state of biomechanical analyses of the human femur, with their limitations, and develop parameters for a 3D printed diaphyseal segment that emulates the flexural biomechanical response of the normal human femur and addresses those limitations. METHODS: The Embase, Medline, and Web of Science databases were systematically reviewed from inception through February 2023 for biomechanical studies of adult human femurs. The Quality Appraisal for Cadaveric Studies scale was used to evaluate the methodological quality of cadaveric studies, the instrument for methodological quality assessment of single-subject finite element analysis was used to assess the quality of computational and other biomechanical analyses. Upon application of all inclusion and exclusion criteria, 42 qualifying studies remained. These were categorized as cadaveric, composite, or modern/innovative. Femoral material properties were categorized as tensile, compressive, or specimen-specific. Tensile parameters included elastic modulus, yield strength, ultimate strength, yield strain, and ultimate strain. Compressive parameters included compressive modulus, yield stress, and ultimate stress. Specimen-specific parameters included stiffness, failure load, and bending moment at failure. Computational studies included model geometry, finite element modeling techniques, validation mechanisms, and loading characteristics. Polylactic acid models of normal human femoral diaphyses were then designed using 3D printing technology to create inexpensive, accessible, and reproducible specimens for flexural biomechanical studies. These models were subjected to three-point bending, and their response curves plotted. The anisotropic mechanical behavior of the 3D printed femurs and the influence of printing orientations, infill density, wall layers, resolution, and other printing parameters were explored to develop parameters that can be generalized for future biomechanical analyses. RESULTS: A total of 723 cadaveric specimens were evaluated, with a weighted average tensile modulus of 10.3 ± 1.47 gigapascals, compressive modulus of 683.3 ± 290.3 megapascals, and ultimate stress of 2.24 ± 0.87 megapascals. Synthetic femurs, including 3D printed and composite structures, exhibited substantial methodological heterogeneity, and aggregate data are presented herein. Modern technologies used in the biomechanical analysis of the human femur include finite-element analysis, x-ray/computed tomography-based studies, fractal analysis, and scanning electron microscopy. These studies showcased a diverse range of parameters studied. Optimal parameters for 3D printed polylactic acid diaphyseal femurs demonstrated that 5% infill density, 2 to 4 wall layers, and a resolution of 200 microns resulted in a flexural strength of 184.8 ± 8.18 megapascals. Models with 20% infill density and 6 wall layers resulted in a flexural modulus of 18.54 ± 0.543 gigapascals. These results emulate the biomechanical response of the normal human femur as reported in the target study. CONCLUSION: The systematic review underscores substantial heterogeneity among femoral biomechanical studies. The standardized values derived from cadaveric studies provide baseline biomechanical values for surgical populations. The variety of research methodologies in all domains necessitates greater standardization in experimental setups and outcome reporting. A validated and comprehensive library of biomechanical values would be beneficial for future studies. This study demonstrates that physiologically relevant biomechanical behavior can be achieved from PLA-derived, 3D printed femoral diaphyses. Some limitations of cadaveric, synthetic/composite, and virtual biomechanical analyzes are addressed by the validated 3D printed models, namely: cost, ethical values, availability, and customizability to pathology."],"dc:format":["application/pdf"],"dc:identifier":["https://hdl.handle.net/2152.5/10831","1596184966"],"dc:language":["en"],"dc:subject":["Femur","Printing, Three-Dimensional","Biomechanical Phenomena","Diaphyses"],"dc:title":["Femoral Biomechanical Analyses and 3D Printed Femoral Diaphysis for Biomechanical Simulation"],"dc:type":["Thesis","text"]},"updated_at":"2026-07-24T05:52:38Z"}