{"id":{"repo_id":"unsw","oai_identifier":"oai:unsworks.library.unsw.edu.au:1959.4/106260"},"canonical_url":"https://search.dev.ndltd.org/etd/unsw/oai:unsworks.library.unsw.edu.au:1959.4/106260","repository":{"repo_id":"unsw","name":"University of New South Wales","base_url":"https://unsworks.unsw.edu.au/oai/provider"},"display":{"title":"Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK): Cross-national Perspectives from PISA 2018 and PISA 2022","abstract":"The Technological, Pedagogical, and Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework has been extensively studied as a model for teachers’ integration of digital technology. Recent research has emphasised the Technological Dimension (T-Dimension), i.e., Technological Knowledge (TK) and Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK), as the most critical components of TPACK development. However, research thus far has shown mixed results about the relationships between TK, TPK and TPACK. Furthermore, the internal structural relationships of these T-dimensions have not been established within large-scale cross-country settings. Hence, to examine the cross-country generalisability of the TPACK model, this study investigated the dimensionality, measurement invariance, and internal structure of TK, TPK, and TPACK within the TPACK framework. Moreover, an extended TPACK model incorporating contextual factors associated with teachers’ TPACK, based on large-scale international datasets, is developed in this study. This thesis presents its findings through three closely related studies: Study 1, Study 2, and Study 3. The study employed data, collected via Teacher Questionnaires from two cycles of Programme International for Student Assessment (PISA), a triennial assessment conducted by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Studies 1 and 2 are based on PISA 2018 data (N = 21,973) across seven countries. Study 3 seeks to replicate the results from Studies 1 and 2, using PISA 2022 data (N = 44,105). Two scales were developed for TK (6-item TC176; 4-item TC220) based on the questionnaire items in PISA 2018 and PISA 2022 while the scales for TPK (14-item TC169), and TPACK (7-item TC166) were available in the public-facing datasets. Contextual variables employed in this study were INSTITU_XK (schools’ education resources and ICT policy) and INSTRUCT_XK (teachers’ practices in assessment and feedback) as predictors of TPACK. The variables employed as outcome variables of TPACK were Instructional Capital (teacher self-efficacy in classroom management, instruction, and fostering positive relationships) and Personal Capital (teacher job and teaching satisfaction). The study used multi-group confirmatory factor analysis (MG-CFA), a statistical procedure that tests the measurement invariance of constructs by gender or by country, and structural equation modelling (SEM) to develop the extended TPACK models with contextual variables associated with TPACK. The findings showed that TK, TPK and TPACK within the TPACK framework are distinct constructs, while moderately related with each other, in both PISA 2018 and PISA 2022 data. Measurement invariance testing indicated a full (strict) invariance level of the TK, TPK, and TPACK by gender, allowing for direct mean comparisons between male and female teachers. However, only metric invariance was achieved by country, limiting cross-country mean comparisons. Overall, MG-CFA results provide strong empirical support to the construct validity of the TPACK framework (Study 1). SEM findings revealed that the hypothesized internal structural relationships of the TPACK model were supported in both PISA cycles, albeit with slight variations in the effect sizes due to different instrumentations of TK between PISA 2018 and 2022. However, both datasets revealed the TK’s association with both TPK and TPACK, as well as TPK’s association with TPACK (see Studies 2 and 3). In the extended SEM, all four predictors were statistically significantly linked to TPACK (Study 2), and TPACK was also statistically significantly linked to all five outcome variables (Study 2 and Study 3). This study, utilising two cycles of large-scale international datasets, provides robust empirical evidence supporting the long-standing theory of TPACK. It further expands the TPACK model by identifying school- and teacher-specific contextual predictors and outcome variables. The findings suggest that: (a) both the knowledge and skills encompassed in TK and TPK contribute independently to teachers’ TPACK, challenging the view of sequential development from TK to TPK; (b) while INSTITU_XK are important, teachers' INSTRUCT_XK are more significant in understanding how teachers utilize TPACK; (c) teachers’ TPACK is a predictor of their Instructional Capital and Personal Capital, indicating that teachers with higher TPACK levels not only integrate technology more effectively but also report greater self-efficacy across various teaching tasks and higher job satisfaction; and (d) notably, teachers’ TPACK is most strongly associated with their self-efficacy in instructional approaches, underscoring the critical role of TPACK in enhancing teachers' instructional practices.","abstract_html":"The Technological, Pedagogical, and Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework has been extensively studied as a model for teachers’ integration of digital technology. Recent research has emphasised the Technological Dimension (T-Dimension), i.e., Technological Knowledge (TK) and Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK), as the most critical components of TPACK development. However, research thus far has shown mixed results about the relationships between TK, TPK and TPACK. Furthermore, the internal structural relationships of these T-dimensions have not been established within large-scale cross-country settings. Hence, to examine the cross-country generalisability of the TPACK model, this study investigated the dimensionality, measurement invariance, and internal structure of TK, TPK, and TPACK within the TPACK framework. Moreover, an extended TPACK model incorporating contextual factors associated with teachers’ TPACK, based on large-scale international datasets, is developed in this study. This thesis presents its findings through three closely related studies: Study 1, Study 2, and Study 3. The study employed data, collected via Teacher Questionnaires from two cycles of Programme International for Student Assessment (PISA), a triennial assessment conducted by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Studies 1 and 2 are based on PISA 2018 data (N = 21,973) across seven countries. Study 3 seeks to replicate the results from Studies 1 and 2, using PISA 2022 data (N = 44,105). Two scales were developed for TK (6-item TC176; 4-item TC220) based on the questionnaire items in PISA 2018 and PISA 2022 while the scales for TPK (14-item TC169), and TPACK (7-item TC166) were available in the public-facing datasets. Contextual variables employed in this study were INSTITU_XK (schools’ education resources and ICT policy) and INSTRUCT_XK (teachers’ practices in assessment and feedback) as predictors of TPACK. The variables employed as outcome variables of TPACK were Instructional Capital (teacher self-efficacy in classroom management, instruction, and fostering positive relationships) and Personal Capital (teacher job and teaching satisfaction). The study used multi-group confirmatory factor analysis (MG-CFA), a statistical procedure that tests the measurement invariance of constructs by gender or by country, and structural equation modelling (SEM) to develop the extended TPACK models with contextual variables associated with TPACK. The findings showed that TK, TPK and TPACK within the TPACK framework are distinct constructs, while moderately related with each other, in both PISA 2018 and PISA 2022 data. Measurement invariance testing indicated a full (strict) invariance level of the TK, TPK, and TPACK by gender, allowing for direct mean comparisons between male and female teachers. However, only metric invariance was achieved by country, limiting cross-country mean comparisons. Overall, MG-CFA results provide strong empirical support to the construct validity of the TPACK framework (Study 1). SEM findings revealed that the hypothesized internal structural relationships of the TPACK model were supported in both PISA cycles, albeit with slight variations in the effect sizes due to different instrumentations of TK between PISA 2018 and 2022. However, both datasets revealed the TK’s association with both TPK and TPACK, as well as TPK’s association with TPACK (see Studies 2 and 3). In the extended SEM, all four predictors were statistically significantly linked to TPACK (Study 2), and TPACK was also statistically significantly linked to all five outcome variables (Study 2 and Study 3). This study, utilising two cycles of large-scale international datasets, provides robust empirical evidence supporting the long-standing theory of TPACK. It further expands the TPACK model by identifying school- and teacher-specific contextual predictors and outcome variables. The findings suggest that: (a) both the knowledge and skills encompassed in TK and TPK contribute independently to teachers’ TPACK, challenging the view of sequential development from TK to TPK; (b) while INSTITU_XK are important, teachers' INSTRUCT_XK are more significant in understanding how teachers utilize TPACK; (c) teachers’ TPACK is a predictor of their Instructional Capital and Personal Capital, indicating that teachers with higher TPACK levels not only integrate technology more effectively but also report greater self-efficacy across various teaching tasks and higher job satisfaction; and (d) notably, teachers’ TPACK is most strongly associated with their self-efficacy in instructional approaches, underscoring the critical role of TPACK in enhancing teachers' instructional practices.","abstract_has_math":false,"creators":["Abril, Jan Michael Vincent ; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0150-4257"],"institution":"UNSW, Sydney","degree_name":null,"degree_level":null,"degree_discipline":null,"degree_department":null,"school":null,"contributors":[],"advisors":[],"committee_chairs":[],"committee_members":[],"year":2025,"date_issued":"2025","date_published":"2025","updated_at":"2026-07-24T05:33:06Z","subjects":["TPACK","Digital Capital Theory","PISA","measurement invariance","structural equation modelling","anzsrc-for: 39 EDUCATION"],"languages":["en"],"rights":["embargoed access","CC BY 4.0"],"rights_urls":["http://purl.org/coar/access_right/c_f1cf","https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"],"identifier_entries":[{"key":"dc:identifier","label":"Identifier","values":["https://doi.org/10.26190/unsworks/31750"],"render_values":[{"text":"https://doi.org/10.26190/unsworks/31750","href":"https://doi.org/10.26190/unsworks/31750","code":true}]}]},"links":{"outbound_url":"http://hdl.handle.net/1959.4/106260","outbound_label":"Handle","outbound_source":"dc:identifier"},"metadata_groups":[{"id":"people","label":"People","entries":[{"key":"dc:creator","label":"Author","values":["Abril, Jan Michael Vincent ; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0150-4257"]}]},{"id":"academic_context","label":"Academic Context","entries":[{"key":"dc:date","label":"Dc Date","values":["2025"]},{"key":"dc:publisher","label":"Institution","values":["UNSW, Sydney"]},{"key":"dc:type","label":"Dc Type","values":["master thesis","http://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_bdcc"]}]},{"id":"subjects_keywords","label":"Subjects and Keywords","entries":[{"key":"dc:subject","label":"Dc Subject","values":["TPACK","Digital Capital Theory","PISA","measurement invariance","structural equation modelling","anzsrc-for: 39 EDUCATION"]}]},{"id":"language_rights","label":"Language and Rights","entries":[{"key":"dc:language","label":"Dc Language","values":["en"]},{"key":"dc:rights","label":"Dc Rights","values":["embargoed access","http://purl.org/coar/access_right/c_f1cf","CC BY 4.0","https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"]}]},{"id":"identifiers","label":"Identifiers","entries":[{"key":"dc:identifier","label":"Identifier","values":["http://hdl.handle.net/1959.4/106260","https://doi.org/10.26190/unsworks/31750"]}]},{"id":"additional","label":"Additional Metadata","entries":[{"key":"dc:description","label":"Description","values":["The Technological, Pedagogical, and Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework has been extensively studied as a model for teachers’ integration of digital technology. Recent research has emphasised the Technological Dimension (T-Dimension), i.e., Technological Knowledge (TK) and Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK), as the most critical components of TPACK development. However, research thus far has shown mixed results about the relationships between TK, TPK and TPACK. Furthermore, the internal structural relationships of these T-dimensions have not been established within large-scale cross-country settings. Hence, to examine the cross-country generalisability of the TPACK model, this study investigated the dimensionality, measurement invariance, and internal structure of TK, TPK, and TPACK within the TPACK framework. Moreover, an extended TPACK model incorporating contextual factors associated with teachers’ TPACK, based on large-scale international datasets, is developed in this study. This thesis presents its findings through three closely related studies: Study 1, Study 2, and Study 3. The study employed data, collected via Teacher Questionnaires from two cycles of Programme International for Student Assessment (PISA), a triennial assessment conducted by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Studies 1 and 2 are based on PISA 2018 data (N = 21,973) across seven countries. Study 3 seeks to replicate the results from Studies 1 and 2, using PISA 2022 data (N = 44,105). Two scales were developed for TK (6-item TC176; 4-item TC220) based on the questionnaire items in PISA 2018 and PISA 2022 while the scales for TPK (14-item TC169), and TPACK (7-item TC166) were available in the public-facing datasets. Contextual variables employed in this study were INSTITU_XK (schools’ education resources and ICT policy) and INSTRUCT_XK (teachers’ practices in assessment and feedback) as predictors of TPACK. The variables employed as outcome variables of TPACK were Instructional Capital (teacher self-efficacy in classroom management, instruction, and fostering positive relationships) and Personal Capital (teacher job and teaching satisfaction). The study used multi-group confirmatory factor analysis (MG-CFA), a statistical procedure that tests the measurement invariance of constructs by gender or by country, and structural equation modelling (SEM) to develop the extended TPACK models with contextual variables associated with TPACK. The findings showed that TK, TPK and TPACK within the TPACK framework are distinct constructs, while moderately related with each other, in both PISA 2018 and PISA 2022 data. Measurement invariance testing indicated a full (strict) invariance level of the TK, TPK, and TPACK by gender, allowing for direct mean comparisons between male and female teachers. However, only metric invariance was achieved by country, limiting cross-country mean comparisons. Overall, MG-CFA results provide strong empirical support to the construct validity of the TPACK framework (Study 1). SEM findings revealed that the hypothesized internal structural relationships of the TPACK model were supported in both PISA cycles, albeit with slight variations in the effect sizes due to different instrumentations of TK between PISA 2018 and 2022. However, both datasets revealed the TK’s association with both TPK and TPACK, as well as TPK’s association with TPACK (see Studies 2 and 3). In the extended SEM, all four predictors were statistically significantly linked to TPACK (Study 2), and TPACK was also statistically significantly linked to all five outcome variables (Study 2 and Study 3). This study, utilising two cycles of large-scale international datasets, provides robust empirical evidence supporting the long-standing theory of TPACK. It further expands the TPACK model by identifying school- and teacher-specific contextual predictors and outcome variables. The findings suggest that: (a) both the knowledge and skills encompassed in TK and TPK contribute independently to teachers’ TPACK, challenging the view of sequential development from TK to TPK; (b) while INSTITU_XK are important, teachers' INSTRUCT_XK are more significant in understanding how teachers utilize TPACK; (c) teachers’ TPACK is a predictor of their Instructional Capital and Personal Capital, indicating that teachers with higher TPACK levels not only integrate technology more effectively but also report greater self-efficacy across various teaching tasks and higher job satisfaction; and (d) notably, teachers’ TPACK is most strongly associated with their self-efficacy in instructional approaches, underscoring the critical role of TPACK in enhancing teachers' instructional practices."]},{"key":"dc:title","label":"Title","values":["Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK): Cross-national Perspectives from PISA 2018 and PISA 2022"]}]}],"canonical_facts":{"dc:creator":["Abril, Jan Michael Vincent ; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0150-4257"],"dc:date":["2025"],"dc:description":["The Technological, Pedagogical, and Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework has been extensively studied as a model for teachers’ integration of digital technology. Recent research has emphasised the Technological Dimension (T-Dimension), i.e., Technological Knowledge (TK) and Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK), as the most critical components of TPACK development. However, research thus far has shown mixed results about the relationships between TK, TPK and TPACK. Furthermore, the internal structural relationships of these T-dimensions have not been established within large-scale cross-country settings. Hence, to examine the cross-country generalisability of the TPACK model, this study investigated the dimensionality, measurement invariance, and internal structure of TK, TPK, and TPACK within the TPACK framework. Moreover, an extended TPACK model incorporating contextual factors associated with teachers’ TPACK, based on large-scale international datasets, is developed in this study. This thesis presents its findings through three closely related studies: Study 1, Study 2, and Study 3. The study employed data, collected via Teacher Questionnaires from two cycles of Programme International for Student Assessment (PISA), a triennial assessment conducted by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Studies 1 and 2 are based on PISA 2018 data (N = 21,973) across seven countries. Study 3 seeks to replicate the results from Studies 1 and 2, using PISA 2022 data (N = 44,105). Two scales were developed for TK (6-item TC176; 4-item TC220) based on the questionnaire items in PISA 2018 and PISA 2022 while the scales for TPK (14-item TC169), and TPACK (7-item TC166) were available in the public-facing datasets. Contextual variables employed in this study were INSTITU_XK (schools’ education resources and ICT policy) and INSTRUCT_XK (teachers’ practices in assessment and feedback) as predictors of TPACK. The variables employed as outcome variables of TPACK were Instructional Capital (teacher self-efficacy in classroom management, instruction, and fostering positive relationships) and Personal Capital (teacher job and teaching satisfaction). The study used multi-group confirmatory factor analysis (MG-CFA), a statistical procedure that tests the measurement invariance of constructs by gender or by country, and structural equation modelling (SEM) to develop the extended TPACK models with contextual variables associated with TPACK. The findings showed that TK, TPK and TPACK within the TPACK framework are distinct constructs, while moderately related with each other, in both PISA 2018 and PISA 2022 data. Measurement invariance testing indicated a full (strict) invariance level of the TK, TPK, and TPACK by gender, allowing for direct mean comparisons between male and female teachers. However, only metric invariance was achieved by country, limiting cross-country mean comparisons. Overall, MG-CFA results provide strong empirical support to the construct validity of the TPACK framework (Study 1). SEM findings revealed that the hypothesized internal structural relationships of the TPACK model were supported in both PISA cycles, albeit with slight variations in the effect sizes due to different instrumentations of TK between PISA 2018 and 2022. However, both datasets revealed the TK’s association with both TPK and TPACK, as well as TPK’s association with TPACK (see Studies 2 and 3). In the extended SEM, all four predictors were statistically significantly linked to TPACK (Study 2), and TPACK was also statistically significantly linked to all five outcome variables (Study 2 and Study 3). This study, utilising two cycles of large-scale international datasets, provides robust empirical evidence supporting the long-standing theory of TPACK. It further expands the TPACK model by identifying school- and teacher-specific contextual predictors and outcome variables. The findings suggest that: (a) both the knowledge and skills encompassed in TK and TPK contribute independently to teachers’ TPACK, challenging the view of sequential development from TK to TPK; (b) while INSTITU_XK are important, teachers' INSTRUCT_XK are more significant in understanding how teachers utilize TPACK; (c) teachers’ TPACK is a predictor of their Instructional Capital and Personal Capital, indicating that teachers with higher TPACK levels not only integrate technology more effectively but also report greater self-efficacy across various teaching tasks and higher job satisfaction; and (d) notably, teachers’ TPACK is most strongly associated with their self-efficacy in instructional approaches, underscoring the critical role of TPACK in enhancing teachers' instructional practices."],"dc:identifier":["http://hdl.handle.net/1959.4/106260","https://doi.org/10.26190/unsworks/31750"],"dc:language":["en"],"dc:publisher":["UNSW, Sydney"],"dc:rights":["embargoed access","http://purl.org/coar/access_right/c_f1cf","CC BY 4.0","https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"],"dc:subject":["TPACK","Digital Capital Theory","PISA","measurement invariance","structural equation modelling","anzsrc-for: 39 EDUCATION"],"dc:title":["Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK): Cross-national Perspectives from PISA 2018 and PISA 2022"],"dc:type":["master thesis","http://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_bdcc"]},"updated_at":"2026-07-24T05:33:06Z"}