{"id":{"repo_id":"tu-berlin","oai_identifier":"oai:depositonce.tu-berlin.de:11303/25197"},"canonical_url":"https://search.dev.ndltd.org/etd/tu-berlin/oai:depositonce.tu-berlin.de:11303/25197","repository":{"repo_id":"tu-berlin","name":"Technische Universität Berlin","base_url":"https://api-depositonce.tu-berlin.de/server/oai/request"},"display":{"title":"Phase selective flame-retardant laminates","abstract":"Fibre-reinforced polymer composites are widely used in structural applications due to their lightweight and high strength. However, their poor fire performance–particularly the flammability and softening of the polymer matrix at elevated temperatures–poses a significant safety concern. This thesis explores three strategies to enhance the fire performance of polymer laminates through structural optimisation and material innovation. The first approach involves applying external protective coatings to carbon fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminates using three configurations: cellulose nanofibres CNF/clay nanocomposite papers, commercial intumescent coatings based on expandable graphite, and vermiculite-based nonwoven mats. These coatings delayed the onset of mechanical failure under fire by acting as thermal barriers, reducing heat transfer and promoting char formation. Bench-scale fire resistance tests showed significantly prolonged failure times and reduced heating rates. The second strategy addresses the limitations of coating adhesion by applying flame retardants (FRs) directly into the top layer of the laminate based on this same polymer - polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), which provides strong interfacial bonding between layers. Three potentially synergistic FR systems – Boehmite/Melamine poly(zinc phosphate) (AlOOH/MPZnP), Aluminium diethylphosphinate/Melamine cyanurate (AlPi/MC), and Expandable graphite/Melamine polyphosphate) (EG/MPP) – were selected to enhance fire performance. Concentrating FRs in the top layer offers fire protection while reducing the total FR concentration in the laminates. Thermogravimetric analysis coupled with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (TGA-FTIR) revealed synergistic effects in decomposition behaviour, particularly in the AlOOH/MPZnP system. This was further supported by the superior performance of this laminate in cone calorimetry, which showed reduced peak of heat release rate (pHRR) and maximum average rate of heat emission (MARHE) values, indicating lower fire hazards. The third approach introduces protective interlayers – such as WHIPOX ceramic composite, titanium foil, rubber insulation mat, and sustainable fibre mats within CFRP laminates. The front section of CFRP laminate, with two strategically placed interlayers, acted as sacrificial and insulative barriers, extending the time to failure up to tenfold. The combination of Ceramic layer and titanium foil proved most effective, while bio-based mats (hemp/basalt) offered comparable fire resistance, demonstrating eco-friendly alternatives. Microstructural damage, such as delaminations and bucklings, was analysed via X-ray CT to understand failure mechanisms. Overall, this study presents that laminate design – encompassing material selection, targeted flame retardant incorporation, and structural configuration – has a critical influence on the fire performance of fibre-reinforced polymer composites. The investigation of three innovative fire protection strategies provides valuable insights for future material development and design.","abstract_html":"Fibre-reinforced polymer composites are widely used in structural applications due to their lightweight and high strength. However, their poor fire performance–particularly the flammability and softening of the polymer matrix at elevated temperatures–poses a significant safety concern. This thesis explores three strategies to enhance the fire performance of polymer laminates through structural optimisation and material innovation. The first approach involves applying external protective coatings to carbon fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminates using three configurations: cellulose nanofibres CNF/clay nanocomposite papers, commercial intumescent coatings based on expandable graphite, and vermiculite-based nonwoven mats. These coatings delayed the onset of mechanical failure under fire by acting as thermal barriers, reducing heat transfer and promoting char formation. Bench-scale fire resistance tests showed significantly prolonged failure times and reduced heating rates. The second strategy addresses the limitations of coating adhesion by applying flame retardants (FRs) directly into the top layer of the laminate based on this same polymer - polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), which provides strong interfacial bonding between layers. Three potentially synergistic FR systems – Boehmite/Melamine poly(zinc phosphate) (AlOOH/MPZnP), Aluminium diethylphosphinate/Melamine cyanurate (AlPi/MC), and Expandable graphite/Melamine polyphosphate) (EG/MPP) – were selected to enhance fire performance. Concentrating FRs in the top layer offers fire protection while reducing the total FR concentration in the laminates. Thermogravimetric analysis coupled with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (TGA-FTIR) revealed synergistic effects in decomposition behaviour, particularly in the AlOOH/MPZnP system. This was further supported by the superior performance of this laminate in cone calorimetry, which showed reduced peak of heat release rate (pHRR) and maximum average rate of heat emission (MARHE) values, indicating lower fire hazards. The third approach introduces protective interlayers – such as WHIPOX ceramic composite, titanium foil, rubber insulation mat, and sustainable fibre mats within CFRP laminates. The front section of CFRP laminate, with two strategically placed interlayers, acted as sacrificial and insulative barriers, extending the time to failure up to tenfold. The combination of Ceramic layer and titanium foil proved most effective, while bio-based mats (hemp/basalt) offered comparable fire resistance, demonstrating eco-friendly alternatives. Microstructural damage, such as delaminations and bucklings, was analysed via X-ray CT to understand failure mechanisms. Overall, this study presents that laminate design – encompassing material selection, targeted flame retardant incorporation, and structural configuration – has a critical influence on the fire performance of fibre-reinforced polymer composites. The investigation of three innovative fire protection strategies provides valuable insights for future material development and design.","abstract_has_math":false,"creators":["Tabaka, Weronika"],"institution":null,"degree_name":null,"degree_level":null,"degree_discipline":null,"degree_department":null,"school":null,"contributors":[],"advisors":["Auhl, Dietmar"],"committee_chairs":[],"committee_members":[],"year":2025,"date_issued":"2025","date_published":"2025","updated_at":"2026-07-27T21:28:33Z","subjects":[],"languages":["en"],"rights":[],"rights_urls":["http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/"],"identifier_entries":[{"key":"dc:identifier.uri","label":"Identifier URI","values":["https://doi.org/10.14279/depositonce-24019"],"render_values":[{"text":"https://doi.org/10.14279/depositonce-24019","href":"https://doi.org/10.14279/depositonce-24019","code":true}]}]},"links":{"outbound_url":"https://depositonce.tu-berlin.de/handle/11303/25197","outbound_label":"Repository record","outbound_source":"dc:identifier.uri"},"metadata_groups":[{"id":"people","label":"People","entries":[{"key":"dc:contributor.advisor","label":"Advisor","values":["Auhl, Dietmar"]},{"key":"dc:creator","label":"Author","values":["Tabaka, Weronika"]}]},{"id":"academic_context","label":"Academic Context","entries":[{"key":"dc:date.accessioned","label":"Dc Date Accessioned","values":["2025-07-31T16:37:43Z"]},{"key":"dc:date.available","label":"Dc Date Available","values":["2025-07-31T16:37:43Z"]},{"key":"dc:date.issued","label":"Date","values":["2025"]},{"key":"dc:type","label":"Dc Type","values":["Doctoral Thesis"]}]},{"id":"language_rights","label":"Language and Rights","entries":[{"key":"dc:language.iso","label":"Language (ISO)","values":["en"]},{"key":"dc:rights.uri","label":"Rights URI","values":["http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/"]}]},{"id":"identifiers","label":"Identifiers","entries":[{"key":"dc:identifier.uri","label":"Identifier URI","values":["https://depositonce.tu-berlin.de/handle/11303/25197","https://doi.org/10.14279/depositonce-24019"]}]},{"id":"additional","label":"Additional Metadata","entries":[{"key":"dc:description.abstract","label":"Abstract","values":["Fibre-reinforced polymer composites are widely used in structural applications due to their lightweight and high strength. However, their poor fire performance–particularly the flammability and softening of the polymer matrix at elevated temperatures–poses a significant safety concern. This thesis explores three strategies to enhance the fire performance of polymer laminates through structural optimisation and material innovation. The first approach involves applying external protective coatings to carbon fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminates using three configurations: cellulose nanofibres CNF/clay nanocomposite papers, commercial intumescent coatings based on expandable graphite, and vermiculite-based nonwoven mats. These coatings delayed the onset of mechanical failure under fire by acting as thermal barriers, reducing heat transfer and promoting char formation. Bench-scale fire resistance tests showed significantly prolonged failure times and reduced heating rates. The second strategy addresses the limitations of coating adhesion by applying flame retardants (FRs) directly into the top layer of the laminate based on this same polymer - polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), which provides strong interfacial bonding between layers. Three potentially synergistic FR systems – Boehmite/Melamine poly(zinc phosphate) (AlOOH/MPZnP), Aluminium diethylphosphinate/Melamine cyanurate (AlPi/MC), and Expandable graphite/Melamine polyphosphate) (EG/MPP) – were selected to enhance fire performance. Concentrating FRs in the top layer offers fire protection while reducing the total FR concentration in the laminates. Thermogravimetric analysis coupled with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (TGA-FTIR) revealed synergistic effects in decomposition behaviour, particularly in the AlOOH/MPZnP system. This was further supported by the superior performance of this laminate in cone calorimetry, which showed reduced peak of heat release rate (pHRR) and maximum average rate of heat emission (MARHE) values, indicating lower fire hazards. The third approach introduces protective interlayers – such as WHIPOX ceramic composite, titanium foil, rubber insulation mat, and sustainable fibre mats within CFRP laminates. The front section of CFRP laminate, with two strategically placed interlayers, acted as sacrificial and insulative barriers, extending the time to failure up to tenfold. The combination of Ceramic layer and titanium foil proved most effective, while bio-based mats (hemp/basalt) offered comparable fire resistance, demonstrating eco-friendly alternatives. Microstructural damage, such as delaminations and bucklings, was analysed via X-ray CT to understand failure mechanisms. Overall, this study presents that laminate design – encompassing material selection, targeted flame retardant incorporation, and structural configuration – has a critical influence on the fire performance of fibre-reinforced polymer composites. The investigation of three innovative fire protection strategies provides valuable insights for future material development and design.","Faserverstärkte Polymerverbunde werden aufgrund ihres geringen Gewichts und ihrer hohen Festigkeit häufig in strukturellen Anwendungen eingesetzt. Ihre geringe Feuerbeständigkeit – insbesondere die Entflammbarkeit und das Erweichen der Polymermatrix bei erhöhten Temperaturen – stellt jedoch ein erhebliches Sicherheitsrisiko dar. In dieser Arbeit werden drei Strategien zur Verbesserung des Brandverhaltens von Polymerlaminaten durch strukturelle Optimierung und Materialinnovation untersucht. Der erste Ansatz umfasst die Anwendung externer Schutzbeschichtungen auf kohlenstofffaserverstärkte Polymerlaminate (CFRP) in drei Konfigurationen: Cellulose-Nanofasern (CNF)/Ton-Nanokomposit-Papiere, kommerzielle intumeszierende Beschichtungen auf Basis expandierbaren Graphits sowie Vliesmatten auf Vermiculitbasis. Diese Beschichtungen verzögerten den mechanischen Versagenszeitpunkt unter Brandeinwirkung durch die Funktion als thermische Barrieren, reduzierten den Wärmetransfer und förderten die Verkohlung. Brandwiderstandstests im Labormaßstab zeigten signifikant verlängerte Versagenszeiten und verringerte Aufheizraten. Die zweite Strategie adressiert die Haftungsprobleme von Beschichtungen, indem Flammschutzmittel (FR) direkt in die Decklage des Laminats eingebracht wurden, wobei dieselbe Polymermatrix – Polybutylenterephthalat (PBT) – verwendet wurde, um eine starke Grenzflächenbindung zu gewährleisten. Drei potenziell synergistische FR Systeme: Böhmite/Aluminiumhydroxid/Melamin-Poly(zinkphosphat) (AlOOH/MPZnP), Aluminium-diethylphosphinat/Melamincyanurat (AlPi/MC) und Expandierbarer Graphit /Melaminpolyphosphat (EG/MPP) – wurden zur Verbesserung des Brandverhaltens ausgewählt. Die gezielte Konzentration der FRs in der Decklage ermöglichte Brandschutz bei gleichzeitig reduziertem Gesamt-FR-Gehalt. Thermogravimetrische Analyse gekoppelt mit Fourier-Transform-Infrarotspektroskopie (TGA-FTIR) zeigte insbesondere für das AlOOH/MPZnP-System synergistische Effekte im thermischen Zersetzungsverhalten. Diese wurden durch die herausragenden Ergebnisse im Kegelkalorimetertest bestätigt, die reduzierte Spitzenwärmefreisatzraten (pHRR) und niedrigere durchschnittliche Wärmefreisetzungsraten (MARHE) aufwiesen – Indikatoren für eine geringere Brandgefahr. Der dritte Ansatz integriert schützende Zwischenschichten – wie das keramische WHIPOX-Komposit, Titanfolie, Gummimatten sowie nachhaltige Faserlagen – in die Struktur von CFRP-Laminaten. Der vordere Teil des CFRP-Laminats, der mit zwei strategisch platzierten Zwischenschichten versehen war, wirkte als opfernde und isolierende Barriere und verlängerte die Versagenszeit um bis zu dem Zehnfachen. Die Kombination aus Keramikschicht und Titanfolie erwies sich als besonders effektiv. Gleichzeitig zeigten biobasierte Alternativen wie Hanf- oder Basaltmatten vergleichbare Feuerbeständigkeit und bieten damit vielversprechende umweltfreundliche Alternativen. Zur Untersuchung der Versagensmechanismen wurden mikroskopische Schäden wie Delaminationen und Beulungen mittels Röntgen-Computertomographie (CT) analysiert. Insgesamt zeigt diese Arbeit, dass das Laminatdesign – durch gezielte Materialwahl, die Anwendung von Flammschutzmitteln und strukturelle Konfiguration – einen entscheidenden Einfluss auf das Brandverhalten faserverstärkter Polymerverbunde hat. Die Untersuchung von drei innovativen Brandschutzstrategien liefert praxisrelevante Erkenntnisse für die zukünftige Entwicklung und Auslegung solcher Materialien."]},{"key":"dc:title","label":"Title","values":["Phase selective flame-retardant laminates"]}]}],"canonical_facts":{"dc:contributor.advisor":["Auhl, Dietmar"],"dc:creator":["Tabaka, Weronika"],"dc:date.accessioned":["2025-07-31T16:37:43Z"],"dc:date.available":["2025-07-31T16:37:43Z"],"dc:date.issued":["2025"],"dc:description.abstract":["Fibre-reinforced polymer composites are widely used in structural applications due to their lightweight and high strength. However, their poor fire performance–particularly the flammability and softening of the polymer matrix at elevated temperatures–poses a significant safety concern. This thesis explores three strategies to enhance the fire performance of polymer laminates through structural optimisation and material innovation. The first approach involves applying external protective coatings to carbon fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminates using three configurations: cellulose nanofibres CNF/clay nanocomposite papers, commercial intumescent coatings based on expandable graphite, and vermiculite-based nonwoven mats. These coatings delayed the onset of mechanical failure under fire by acting as thermal barriers, reducing heat transfer and promoting char formation. Bench-scale fire resistance tests showed significantly prolonged failure times and reduced heating rates. The second strategy addresses the limitations of coating adhesion by applying flame retardants (FRs) directly into the top layer of the laminate based on this same polymer - polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), which provides strong interfacial bonding between layers. Three potentially synergistic FR systems – Boehmite/Melamine poly(zinc phosphate) (AlOOH/MPZnP), Aluminium diethylphosphinate/Melamine cyanurate (AlPi/MC), and Expandable graphite/Melamine polyphosphate) (EG/MPP) – were selected to enhance fire performance. Concentrating FRs in the top layer offers fire protection while reducing the total FR concentration in the laminates. Thermogravimetric analysis coupled with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (TGA-FTIR) revealed synergistic effects in decomposition behaviour, particularly in the AlOOH/MPZnP system. This was further supported by the superior performance of this laminate in cone calorimetry, which showed reduced peak of heat release rate (pHRR) and maximum average rate of heat emission (MARHE) values, indicating lower fire hazards. The third approach introduces protective interlayers – such as WHIPOX ceramic composite, titanium foil, rubber insulation mat, and sustainable fibre mats within CFRP laminates. The front section of CFRP laminate, with two strategically placed interlayers, acted as sacrificial and insulative barriers, extending the time to failure up to tenfold. The combination of Ceramic layer and titanium foil proved most effective, while bio-based mats (hemp/basalt) offered comparable fire resistance, demonstrating eco-friendly alternatives. Microstructural damage, such as delaminations and bucklings, was analysed via X-ray CT to understand failure mechanisms. Overall, this study presents that laminate design – encompassing material selection, targeted flame retardant incorporation, and structural configuration – has a critical influence on the fire performance of fibre-reinforced polymer composites. The investigation of three innovative fire protection strategies provides valuable insights for future material development and design.","Faserverstärkte Polymerverbunde werden aufgrund ihres geringen Gewichts und ihrer hohen Festigkeit häufig in strukturellen Anwendungen eingesetzt. Ihre geringe Feuerbeständigkeit – insbesondere die Entflammbarkeit und das Erweichen der Polymermatrix bei erhöhten Temperaturen – stellt jedoch ein erhebliches Sicherheitsrisiko dar. In dieser Arbeit werden drei Strategien zur Verbesserung des Brandverhaltens von Polymerlaminaten durch strukturelle Optimierung und Materialinnovation untersucht. Der erste Ansatz umfasst die Anwendung externer Schutzbeschichtungen auf kohlenstofffaserverstärkte Polymerlaminate (CFRP) in drei Konfigurationen: Cellulose-Nanofasern (CNF)/Ton-Nanokomposit-Papiere, kommerzielle intumeszierende Beschichtungen auf Basis expandierbaren Graphits sowie Vliesmatten auf Vermiculitbasis. Diese Beschichtungen verzögerten den mechanischen Versagenszeitpunkt unter Brandeinwirkung durch die Funktion als thermische Barrieren, reduzierten den Wärmetransfer und förderten die Verkohlung. Brandwiderstandstests im Labormaßstab zeigten signifikant verlängerte Versagenszeiten und verringerte Aufheizraten. Die zweite Strategie adressiert die Haftungsprobleme von Beschichtungen, indem Flammschutzmittel (FR) direkt in die Decklage des Laminats eingebracht wurden, wobei dieselbe Polymermatrix – Polybutylenterephthalat (PBT) – verwendet wurde, um eine starke Grenzflächenbindung zu gewährleisten. Drei potenziell synergistische FR Systeme: Böhmite/Aluminiumhydroxid/Melamin-Poly(zinkphosphat) (AlOOH/MPZnP), Aluminium-diethylphosphinat/Melamincyanurat (AlPi/MC) und Expandierbarer Graphit /Melaminpolyphosphat (EG/MPP) – wurden zur Verbesserung des Brandverhaltens ausgewählt. Die gezielte Konzentration der FRs in der Decklage ermöglichte Brandschutz bei gleichzeitig reduziertem Gesamt-FR-Gehalt. Thermogravimetrische Analyse gekoppelt mit Fourier-Transform-Infrarotspektroskopie (TGA-FTIR) zeigte insbesondere für das AlOOH/MPZnP-System synergistische Effekte im thermischen Zersetzungsverhalten. Diese wurden durch die herausragenden Ergebnisse im Kegelkalorimetertest bestätigt, die reduzierte Spitzenwärmefreisatzraten (pHRR) und niedrigere durchschnittliche Wärmefreisetzungsraten (MARHE) aufwiesen – Indikatoren für eine geringere Brandgefahr. Der dritte Ansatz integriert schützende Zwischenschichten – wie das keramische WHIPOX-Komposit, Titanfolie, Gummimatten sowie nachhaltige Faserlagen – in die Struktur von CFRP-Laminaten. Der vordere Teil des CFRP-Laminats, der mit zwei strategisch platzierten Zwischenschichten versehen war, wirkte als opfernde und isolierende Barriere und verlängerte die Versagenszeit um bis zu dem Zehnfachen. Die Kombination aus Keramikschicht und Titanfolie erwies sich als besonders effektiv. Gleichzeitig zeigten biobasierte Alternativen wie Hanf- oder Basaltmatten vergleichbare Feuerbeständigkeit und bieten damit vielversprechende umweltfreundliche Alternativen. Zur Untersuchung der Versagensmechanismen wurden mikroskopische Schäden wie Delaminationen und Beulungen mittels Röntgen-Computertomographie (CT) analysiert. Insgesamt zeigt diese Arbeit, dass das Laminatdesign – durch gezielte Materialwahl, die Anwendung von Flammschutzmitteln und strukturelle Konfiguration – einen entscheidenden Einfluss auf das Brandverhalten faserverstärkter Polymerverbunde hat. Die Untersuchung von drei innovativen Brandschutzstrategien liefert praxisrelevante Erkenntnisse für die zukünftige Entwicklung und Auslegung solcher Materialien."],"dc:identifier.uri":["https://depositonce.tu-berlin.de/handle/11303/25197","https://doi.org/10.14279/depositonce-24019"],"dc:language.iso":["en"],"dc:rights.uri":["http://rightsstatements.org/vocab/InC/1.0/"],"dc:title":["Phase selective flame-retardant laminates"],"dc:type":["Doctoral Thesis"]},"updated_at":"2026-07-27T21:28:33Z"}