{"id":{"repo_id":"strathclyde","oai_identifier":"oai:strathclyde:8049g509v"},"canonical_url":"https://search.dev.ndltd.org/etd/strathclyde/oai:strathclyde:8049g509v","repository":{"repo_id":"strathclyde","name":"University of Strathclyde","base_url":"https://stax.strath.ac.uk/catalog/oai"},"display":{"title":"A study of the biological activity of bee venom and its fractions with regard to cosmetic science and immunology","abstract":"Apis mellifera venom has been used since antiquity to treat various ailments but scientific evidence to justify its therapeutic claims is incomplete. The venom has recently entered cosmetic usage as a mimetic ingredient to alleviate signs of facial aging. This study investigated the potential of bee venom (BV) as a source of cosmetic and immunomodulatory agents for use in skin anti-ageing applications and as a vaccine adjuvant, respectively. BV fractions were obtained by reversed phase preparative chromatography and characterised by LC-MS and NMR techniques. The fractions were assayed for antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities against a range of microbes (Mycobacterium marinum, Norcardia farcinia and Trypanosoma brucei brucei) and human cell lines [NCTC2544 (normal keratinocytes), PNT2A (normal epithelial cells), and HS27 (normal fibroblasts)] respectively. Immunomodulatory effects were investigated in PMA-differentiated U937 cells with and without LPS co-stimulation. The aqueous stability of the venom and its susceptibility to protease action were as-sessed by LC-MS assays. An LC-MS method was also developed and validated for the assay of BV in commercial creams using the melittin signal as an indicator of BV content. Of the 4 BV fractions (F-1 to F-4), the largest, containing melittin, showed the most activity against N. farcinia (25-50μg/mL) and T. b. brucei (0.78-1.56μg/mL), but was not very active against M. marinum (>100μg/mL). The melittin fraction (96% pure) was the most cytotoxic against keratinocytes, fibroblasts and epi-thelial cells, with IC50 ≥ 2.5-4.0μg/mL. All fractions significantly enhanced IL-1β release, while only F-4, a lipophilic fraction, enhanced TNF-α release. F-4, which was revealed through NMR elucidation to contain (Z)-9-eicosen-1-ol, produced sig-nificant inhibition of IL-6 release. Melittin in aqueous solutions of BV, but not of the melittin fraction alone, underwent a temperature-dependent spontaneous degradation within the 21Lys-22Arg-23Lys-24Arg sequence due to a serine carboxypeptidase-like activity attributed to the BV allergen, Api m9. Taken together, these results suggest that a formulation matching the 3.2-37.2ppm content of melittin assayed in commer-cial creams would be safe for skin application based on IC50 values in human cells. The immunomodulatory effects observed in U937 cells highlight the potential of BV as a possible source of vaccine adjuvants.","abstract_html":"Apis mellifera venom has been used since antiquity to treat various ailments but scientific evidence to justify its therapeutic claims is incomplete. The venom has recently entered cosmetic usage as a mimetic ingredient to alleviate signs of facial aging. This study investigated the potential of bee venom (BV) as a source of cosmetic and immunomodulatory agents for use in skin anti-ageing applications and as a vaccine adjuvant, respectively. BV fractions were obtained by reversed phase preparative chromatography and characterised by LC-MS and NMR techniques. The fractions were assayed for antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities against a range of microbes (Mycobacterium marinum, Norcardia farcinia and Trypanosoma brucei brucei) and human cell lines [NCTC2544 (normal keratinocytes), PNT2A (normal epithelial cells), and HS27 (normal fibroblasts)] respectively. Immunomodulatory effects were investigated in PMA-differentiated U937 cells with and without LPS co-stimulation. The aqueous stability of the venom and its susceptibility to protease action were as-sessed by LC-MS assays. An LC-MS method was also developed and validated for the assay of BV in commercial creams using the melittin signal as an indicator of BV content. Of the 4 BV fractions (F-1 to F-4), the largest, containing melittin, showed the most activity against N. farcinia (25-50μg/mL) and T. b. brucei (0.78-1.56μg/mL), but was not very active against M. marinum (>100μg/mL). The melittin fraction (96% pure) was the most cytotoxic against keratinocytes, fibroblasts and epi-thelial cells, with IC50 ≥ 2.5-4.0μg/mL. All fractions significantly enhanced IL-1β release, while only F-4, a lipophilic fraction, enhanced TNF-α release. F-4, which was revealed through NMR elucidation to contain (Z)-9-eicosen-1-ol, produced sig-nificant inhibition of IL-6 release. Melittin in aqueous solutions of BV, but not of the melittin fraction alone, underwent a temperature-dependent spontaneous degradation within the 21Lys-22Arg-23Lys-24Arg sequence due to a serine carboxypeptidase-like activity attributed to the BV allergen, Api m9. Taken together, these results suggest that a formulation matching the 3.2-37.2ppm content of melittin assayed in commer-cial creams would be safe for skin application based on IC50 values in human cells. The immunomodulatory effects observed in U937 cells highlight the potential of BV as a possible source of vaccine adjuvants.","abstract_has_math":false,"creators":["Tusiimire, Jonans"],"institution":"University of Strathclyde","degree_name":"phd","degree_level":"doctoral-pg","degree_discipline":null,"degree_department":null,"school":null,"contributors":[],"advisors":[],"committee_chairs":[],"committee_members":[],"year":2016,"date_issued":"2016","date_published":"2016","updated_at":"2026-07-24T04:53:12Z","subjects":[],"languages":[],"rights":[],"rights_urls":[],"identifier_entries":[{"key":"dc:identifier.doi","label":"DOI","values":["10.48730/4wd3-kf02"],"render_values":[{"text":"10.48730/4wd3-kf02","href":"https://doi.org/10.48730/4wd3-kf02","code":true}]},{"key":"dc:identifier","label":"Identifier","values":["T14368"],"render_values":[{"text":"T14368","href":null,"code":true}]},{"key":"dc:creator.authoridentifier","label":"Author Identifier","values":["201369927"],"render_values":[{"text":"201369927","href":null,"code":true}]}]},"links":{"outbound_url":"https://stax.strath.ac.uk/concern/theses/8049g509v","outbound_label":"Repository record","outbound_source":"dc:identifier.uri"},"metadata_groups":[{"id":"people","label":"People","entries":[{"key":"dc:creator","label":"Author","values":["Tusiimire, Jonans"]},{"key":"dc:creator.authoridentifier","label":"Author Identifier","values":["201369927"]}]},{"id":"academic_context","label":"Academic Context","entries":[{"key":"dc:date","label":"Dc Date","values":["2016"]},{"key":"dc:date.issued","label":"Date","values":["2016"]},{"key":"dc:publisher.department","label":"Dc Publisher Department","values":["Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences"]},{"key":"dc:publisher.institution","label":"Dc Publisher Institution","values":["University of Strathclyde"]},{"key":"dc:type.qualificationlevel","label":"Dc Type Qualificationlevel","values":["doctoral-pg"]},{"key":"dc:type.qualificationname","label":"Dc Type Qualificationname","values":["phd"]}]},{"id":"identifiers","label":"Identifiers","entries":[{"key":"dc:identifier","label":"Identifier","values":["T14368"]},{"key":"dc:identifier.doi","label":"DOI","values":["10.48730/4wd3-kf02"]},{"key":"dc:identifier.uri","label":"Identifier URI","values":["https://stax.strath.ac.uk/concern/theses/8049g509v"]}]},{"id":"additional","label":"Additional Metadata","entries":[{"key":"dc:description","label":"Description","values":["Apis mellifera venom has been used since antiquity to treat various ailments but scientific evidence to justify its therapeutic claims is incomplete. The venom has recently entered cosmetic usage as a mimetic ingredient to alleviate signs of facial aging. This study investigated the potential of bee venom (BV) as a source of cosmetic and immunomodulatory agents for use in skin anti-ageing applications and as a vaccine adjuvant, respectively. BV fractions were obtained by reversed phase preparative chromatography and characterised by LC-MS and NMR techniques. The fractions were assayed for antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities against a range of microbes (Mycobacterium marinum, Norcardia farcinia and Trypanosoma brucei brucei) and human cell lines [NCTC2544 (normal keratinocytes), PNT2A (normal epithelial cells), and HS27 (normal fibroblasts)] respectively. Immunomodulatory effects were investigated in PMA-differentiated U937 cells with and without LPS co-stimulation. The aqueous stability of the venom and its susceptibility to protease action were as-sessed by LC-MS assays. An LC-MS method was also developed and validated for the assay of BV in commercial creams using the melittin signal as an indicator of BV content. Of the 4 BV fractions (F-1 to F-4), the largest, containing melittin, showed the most activity against N. farcinia (25-50μg/mL) and T. b. brucei (0.78-1.56μg/mL), but was not very active against M. marinum (>100μg/mL). The melittin fraction (96% pure) was the most cytotoxic against keratinocytes, fibroblasts and epi-thelial cells, with IC50 ≥ 2.5-4.0μg/mL. All fractions significantly enhanced IL-1β release, while only F-4, a lipophilic fraction, enhanced TNF-α release. F-4, which was revealed through NMR elucidation to contain (Z)-9-eicosen-1-ol, produced sig-nificant inhibition of IL-6 release. Melittin in aqueous solutions of BV, but not of the melittin fraction alone, underwent a temperature-dependent spontaneous degradation within the 21Lys-22Arg-23Lys-24Arg sequence due to a serine carboxypeptidase-like activity attributed to the BV allergen, Api m9. Taken together, these results suggest that a formulation matching the 3.2-37.2ppm content of melittin assayed in commer-cial creams would be safe for skin application based on IC50 values in human cells. The immunomodulatory effects observed in U937 cells highlight the potential of BV as a possible source of vaccine adjuvants."]},{"key":"dc:description.abstract","label":"Abstract","values":["Apis mellifera venom has been used since antiquity to treat various ailments but scientific evidence to justify its therapeutic claims is incomplete. The venom has recently entered cosmetic usage as a mimetic ingredient to alleviate signs of facial aging. This study investigated the potential of bee venom (BV) as a source of cosmetic and immunomodulatory agents for use in skin anti-ageing applications and as a vaccine adjuvant, respectively. BV fractions were obtained by reversed phase preparative chromatography and characterised by LC-MS and NMR techniques. The fractions were assayed for antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities against a range of microbes (Mycobacterium marinum, Norcardia farcinia and Trypanosoma brucei brucei) and human cell lines [NCTC2544 (normal keratinocytes), PNT2A (normal epithelial cells), and HS27 (normal fibroblasts)] respectively. Immunomodulatory effects were investigated in PMA-differentiated U937 cells with and without LPS co-stimulation. The aqueous stability of the venom and its susceptibility to protease action were as-sessed by LC-MS assays. An LC-MS method was also developed and validated for the assay of BV in commercial creams using the melittin signal as an indicator of BV content. Of the 4 BV fractions (F-1 to F-4), the largest, containing melittin, showed the most activity against N. farcinia (25-50μg/mL) and T. b. brucei (0.78-1.56μg/mL), but was not very active against M. marinum (>100μg/mL). The melittin fraction (96% pure) was the most cytotoxic against keratinocytes, fibroblasts and epi-thelial cells, with IC50 ≥ 2.5-4.0μg/mL. All fractions significantly enhanced IL-1β release, while only F-4, a lipophilic fraction, enhanced TNF-α release. F-4, which was revealed through NMR elucidation to contain (Z)-9-eicosen-1-ol, produced sig-nificant inhibition of IL-6 release. Melittin in aqueous solutions of BV, but not of the melittin fraction alone, underwent a temperature-dependent spontaneous degradation within the 21Lys-22Arg-23Lys-24Arg sequence due to a serine carboxypeptidase-like activity attributed to the BV allergen, Api m9. Taken together, these results suggest that a formulation matching the 3.2-37.2ppm content of melittin assayed in commer-cial creams would be safe for skin application based on IC50 values in human cells. The immunomodulatory effects observed in U937 cells highlight the potential of BV as a possible source of vaccine adjuvants."]},{"key":"dc:title","label":"Title","values":["A study of the biological activity of bee venom and its fractions with regard to cosmetic science and immunology"]}]}],"canonical_facts":{"dc:creator":["Tusiimire, Jonans"],"dc:creator.authoridentifier":["201369927"],"dc:date":["2016"],"dc:date.issued":["2016"],"dc:description":["Apis mellifera venom has been used since antiquity to treat various ailments but scientific evidence to justify its therapeutic claims is incomplete. The venom has recently entered cosmetic usage as a mimetic ingredient to alleviate signs of facial aging. This study investigated the potential of bee venom (BV) as a source of cosmetic and immunomodulatory agents for use in skin anti-ageing applications and as a vaccine adjuvant, respectively. BV fractions were obtained by reversed phase preparative chromatography and characterised by LC-MS and NMR techniques. The fractions were assayed for antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities against a range of microbes (Mycobacterium marinum, Norcardia farcinia and Trypanosoma brucei brucei) and human cell lines [NCTC2544 (normal keratinocytes), PNT2A (normal epithelial cells), and HS27 (normal fibroblasts)] respectively. Immunomodulatory effects were investigated in PMA-differentiated U937 cells with and without LPS co-stimulation. The aqueous stability of the venom and its susceptibility to protease action were as-sessed by LC-MS assays. An LC-MS method was also developed and validated for the assay of BV in commercial creams using the melittin signal as an indicator of BV content. Of the 4 BV fractions (F-1 to F-4), the largest, containing melittin, showed the most activity against N. farcinia (25-50μg/mL) and T. b. brucei (0.78-1.56μg/mL), but was not very active against M. marinum (>100μg/mL). The melittin fraction (96% pure) was the most cytotoxic against keratinocytes, fibroblasts and epi-thelial cells, with IC50 ≥ 2.5-4.0μg/mL. All fractions significantly enhanced IL-1β release, while only F-4, a lipophilic fraction, enhanced TNF-α release. F-4, which was revealed through NMR elucidation to contain (Z)-9-eicosen-1-ol, produced sig-nificant inhibition of IL-6 release. Melittin in aqueous solutions of BV, but not of the melittin fraction alone, underwent a temperature-dependent spontaneous degradation within the 21Lys-22Arg-23Lys-24Arg sequence due to a serine carboxypeptidase-like activity attributed to the BV allergen, Api m9. Taken together, these results suggest that a formulation matching the 3.2-37.2ppm content of melittin assayed in commer-cial creams would be safe for skin application based on IC50 values in human cells. The immunomodulatory effects observed in U937 cells highlight the potential of BV as a possible source of vaccine adjuvants."],"dc:description.abstract":["Apis mellifera venom has been used since antiquity to treat various ailments but scientific evidence to justify its therapeutic claims is incomplete. The venom has recently entered cosmetic usage as a mimetic ingredient to alleviate signs of facial aging. This study investigated the potential of bee venom (BV) as a source of cosmetic and immunomodulatory agents for use in skin anti-ageing applications and as a vaccine adjuvant, respectively. BV fractions were obtained by reversed phase preparative chromatography and characterised by LC-MS and NMR techniques. The fractions were assayed for antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities against a range of microbes (Mycobacterium marinum, Norcardia farcinia and Trypanosoma brucei brucei) and human cell lines [NCTC2544 (normal keratinocytes), PNT2A (normal epithelial cells), and HS27 (normal fibroblasts)] respectively. Immunomodulatory effects were investigated in PMA-differentiated U937 cells with and without LPS co-stimulation. The aqueous stability of the venom and its susceptibility to protease action were as-sessed by LC-MS assays. An LC-MS method was also developed and validated for the assay of BV in commercial creams using the melittin signal as an indicator of BV content. Of the 4 BV fractions (F-1 to F-4), the largest, containing melittin, showed the most activity against N. farcinia (25-50μg/mL) and T. b. brucei (0.78-1.56μg/mL), but was not very active against M. marinum (>100μg/mL). The melittin fraction (96% pure) was the most cytotoxic against keratinocytes, fibroblasts and epi-thelial cells, with IC50 ≥ 2.5-4.0μg/mL. All fractions significantly enhanced IL-1β release, while only F-4, a lipophilic fraction, enhanced TNF-α release. F-4, which was revealed through NMR elucidation to contain (Z)-9-eicosen-1-ol, produced sig-nificant inhibition of IL-6 release. Melittin in aqueous solutions of BV, but not of the melittin fraction alone, underwent a temperature-dependent spontaneous degradation within the 21Lys-22Arg-23Lys-24Arg sequence due to a serine carboxypeptidase-like activity attributed to the BV allergen, Api m9. Taken together, these results suggest that a formulation matching the 3.2-37.2ppm content of melittin assayed in commer-cial creams would be safe for skin application based on IC50 values in human cells. The immunomodulatory effects observed in U937 cells highlight the potential of BV as a possible source of vaccine adjuvants."],"dc:identifier":["T14368"],"dc:identifier.doi":["10.48730/4wd3-kf02"],"dc:identifier.uri":["https://stax.strath.ac.uk/concern/theses/8049g509v"],"dc:publisher.department":["Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences"],"dc:publisher.institution":["University of Strathclyde"],"dc:title":["A study of the biological activity of bee venom and its fractions with regard to cosmetic science and immunology"],"dc:type.qualificationlevel":["doctoral-pg"],"dc:type.qualificationname":["phd"]},"updated_at":"2026-07-24T04:53:12Z"}