Predator detection and assessment of predation risk have important survival consequences for animals. However, responses to predatory threats can vary with different stimuli. Chemical cues are important for predator recognition but visual cues may elicit defensive responses. Cottonmouths (Agkistrodon piscivorus) exhibit an array of antipredatory behaviors that have been thoroughly characterized in response to human aggressors, but their responses to cues from other predators are poorly known. I conducted three experiments to evaluate cottonmouth responses to visual and chemical stimuli from predators and non-predators. Snakes exposed to predator chemical cues exhibited elevated tongue-flick rates compared to controls but did not perform any antipredatory behaviors. Snakes exposed to mobile silhouettes of predators and non-predators performed significantly more defensive displays in response to red-tailed hawk models than controls. However, snakes exposed to visual models of terrestrial predators and non-predators exhibited elevated responses to taxidermed mink and muskrat compared to an inanimate object of similar size and color. My results are consistent with risk-sensitivity predictions in that cottonmouths can use chemical cues to recognize predators and use visual cues to distinguish predatory bird silhouettes from those of non-predatory birds. However, snakes generalized their antipredator responses to stationary mammals based on visual cues alone.
","abstract_html":"<p>Predator detection and assessment of predation risk have important survival consequences for animals. However, responses to predatory threats can vary with different stimuli. Chemical cues are important for predator recognition but visual cues may elicit defensive responses. Cottonmouths (Agkistrodon piscivorus) exhibit an array of antipredatory behaviors that have been thoroughly characterized in response to human aggressors, but their responses to cues from other predators are poorly known. I conducted three experiments to evaluate cottonmouth responses to visual and chemical stimuli from predators and non-predators. Snakes exposed to predator chemical cues exhibited elevated tongue-flick rates compared to controls but did not perform any antipredatory behaviors. Snakes exposed to mobile silhouettes of predators and non-predators performed significantly more defensive displays in response to red-tailed hawk models than controls. However, snakes exposed to visual models of terrestrial predators and non-predators exhibited elevated responses to taxidermed mink and muskrat compared to an inanimate object of similar size and color. My results are consistent with risk-sensitivity predictions in that cottonmouths can use chemical cues to recognize predators and use visual cues to distinguish predatory bird silhouettes from those of non-predatory birds. However, snakes generalized their antipredator responses to stationary mammals based on visual cues alone.</p>","abstract_has_math":false,"creators":["Kohlhepp, Kristen Lee"],"institution":null,"degree_name":"Master of Science in Biology","degree_level":"Masters","degree_discipline":"Biology","degree_department":null,"school":null,"contributors":["Brian Greene"],"advisors":[],"committee_chairs":[],"committee_members":[],"year":2016,"date_issued":"2016-01-01T08:00:00Z","date_published":"2016-01-01T08:00:00Z","updated_at":"2026-07-24T03:14:59Z","subjects":["threat-sensitivity","chemical detection","visual detection","anti-predator response","behavior","snake","cottonmouth","Agkistrodon piscivorus","Biology"],"languages":[],"rights":["© Kristen Lee Kohlhepp"],"rights_urls":[],"identifier_entries":[]},"links":{"outbound_url":"https://bearworks.missouristate.edu/theses/11","outbound_label":"Repository record","outbound_source":"dc:identifier"},"metadata_groups":[{"id":"people","label":"People","entries":[{"key":"dc:contributor","label":"Contributor","values":["Brian Greene"]},{"key":"dc:creator","label":"Author","values":["Kohlhepp, Kristen Lee"]}]},{"id":"academic_context","label":"Academic Context","entries":[{"key":"thesis:degree_discipline","label":"Discipline","values":["Biology"]},{"key":"thesis:degree_level","label":"Degree Level","values":["Masters"]},{"key":"thesis:degree_name","label":"Degree Name","values":["Master of Science in Biology"]}]},{"id":"subjects_keywords","label":"Subjects and Keywords","entries":[{"key":"dc:subject","label":"Dc Subject","values":["threat-sensitivity","chemical detection","visual detection","anti-predator response","behavior","snake","cottonmouth","Agkistrodon piscivorus","Biology"]}]},{"id":"language_rights","label":"Language and Rights","entries":[{"key":"dc:rights","label":"Dc Rights","values":["© Kristen Lee Kohlhepp"]}]},{"id":"identifiers","label":"Identifiers","entries":[{"key":"dc:identifier","label":"Identifier","values":["https://bearworks.missouristate.edu/theses/11"]}]},{"id":"additional","label":"Additional Metadata","entries":[{"key":"dc:description.abstract","label":"Abstract","values":["Predator detection and assessment of predation risk have important survival consequences for animals. However, responses to predatory threats can vary with different stimuli. Chemical cues are important for predator recognition but visual cues may elicit defensive responses. Cottonmouths (Agkistrodon piscivorus) exhibit an array of antipredatory behaviors that have been thoroughly characterized in response to human aggressors, but their responses to cues from other predators are poorly known. I conducted three experiments to evaluate cottonmouth responses to visual and chemical stimuli from predators and non-predators. Snakes exposed to predator chemical cues exhibited elevated tongue-flick rates compared to controls but did not perform any antipredatory behaviors. Snakes exposed to mobile silhouettes of predators and non-predators performed significantly more defensive displays in response to red-tailed hawk models than controls. However, snakes exposed to visual models of terrestrial predators and non-predators exhibited elevated responses to taxidermed mink and muskrat compared to an inanimate object of similar size and color. My results are consistent with risk-sensitivity predictions in that cottonmouths can use chemical cues to recognize predators and use visual cues to distinguish predatory bird silhouettes from those of non-predatory birds. However, snakes generalized their antipredator responses to stationary mammals based on visual cues alone.
"]},{"key":"dc:title","label":"Title","values":["Behavioral Responses By Cottonmouths (Agkistrodon Piscivorus) To Chemical And Visual Predator Cues"]}]}],"canonical_facts":{"dc:contributor":["Brian Greene"],"dc:creator":["Kohlhepp, Kristen Lee"],"dc:description.abstract":["Predator detection and assessment of predation risk have important survival consequences for animals. However, responses to predatory threats can vary with different stimuli. Chemical cues are important for predator recognition but visual cues may elicit defensive responses. Cottonmouths (Agkistrodon piscivorus) exhibit an array of antipredatory behaviors that have been thoroughly characterized in response to human aggressors, but their responses to cues from other predators are poorly known. I conducted three experiments to evaluate cottonmouth responses to visual and chemical stimuli from predators and non-predators. Snakes exposed to predator chemical cues exhibited elevated tongue-flick rates compared to controls but did not perform any antipredatory behaviors. Snakes exposed to mobile silhouettes of predators and non-predators performed significantly more defensive displays in response to red-tailed hawk models than controls. However, snakes exposed to visual models of terrestrial predators and non-predators exhibited elevated responses to taxidermed mink and muskrat compared to an inanimate object of similar size and color. My results are consistent with risk-sensitivity predictions in that cottonmouths can use chemical cues to recognize predators and use visual cues to distinguish predatory bird silhouettes from those of non-predatory birds. However, snakes generalized their antipredator responses to stationary mammals based on visual cues alone.
"],"dc:identifier":["https://bearworks.missouristate.edu/theses/11"],"dc:rights":["© Kristen Lee Kohlhepp"],"dc:subject":["threat-sensitivity","chemical detection","visual detection","anti-predator response","behavior","snake","cottonmouth","Agkistrodon piscivorus","Biology"],"dc:title":["Behavioral Responses By Cottonmouths (Agkistrodon Piscivorus) To Chemical And Visual Predator Cues"],"thesis:degree_discipline":["Biology"],"thesis:degree_level":["Masters"],"thesis:degree_name":["Master of Science in Biology"]},"updated_at":"2026-07-24T03:14:59Z"}