{"id":{"repo_id":"cambridge","oai_identifier":"oai:www.repository.cam.ac.uk:1810/363352"},"canonical_url":"https://search.dev.ndltd.org/etd/cambridge/oai:www.repository.cam.ac.uk:1810/363352","repository":{"repo_id":"cambridge","name":"Cambridge University","base_url":"https://api.repository.cam.ac.uk/server/oai/request"},"display":{"title":"Structure & Function of Bacterial Transport Machines in their Cellular Context","abstract":"Membranes confer cells with individual identity and capacity to regulate their response to their environment. A critical aspect of having a membranous partition is the ability to transport substances into and out of cells as part of life-sustaining functions. In pathogenic bacteria, transporters aid infection and survival in the host. Two such transporters in Gram-negative bacterial species are the MacA-MacB-TolC (MacAB-TolC) antibiotic efflux pump and the Type I Secretion System (T1SS), responsible respectively for antibiotic resistance and export of protein virulence factors. To pass the Gram-negative envelope in a one-step translocation process, both machines use a tripartite system, consisting of outer membrane protein TolC, a periplasmic adapter protein (MacA or haemolysin D (HlyD) in the T1SS), and an inner membrane protein (MacB or haemolysin B (HlyB) in the T1SS). Both use the power of ATP-hydrolysis to export their substrates. Here, I utilise computational and experimental approaches to elucidate the mechanism of function for both machines. I conduct molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of membrane embedded HlyB component of the T1SS with and without its haemolysin A (HlyA) substrate as *in silico* experiments. I also conduct MD simulations with and without substrate for a related peptidase. I show that substrate recognition is via conserved charge-charge interactions. I also show that HlyB has an asymmetric preferential interaction with cardiolipin when its substrate is present, which is not seen in the peptidase simulations. I propose that this preference is part of the mechanism of transport, with cardiolipin providing energy via the proton-motive force. I test this hypothesis through flow cytometry detection of labelled substrate trapped T1SS in a mixed population of cells, by comparing parental MG1655 *Escherichia coli* with a cardiolipin deficient MG1655 strain. I found that the cardiolipin deficient strain has reduced T1SS levels compared to its parent. To aid structural studies, I optimise the expression of the T1SS using a flow cytometry based sequential design strategy where conditions are iteratively tested via detection of substrate trapped T1SS and updated until no more improvement can be made. I also test purification strategies for single-particle cryo-electron microscopy studies. Finally, I apply further bioinformatic approaches and synthesise my computational and experimental results to propose a mechanism of transport and suggest future experimental tests. I conduct MD simulations of MacB in membrane with and without a trapped lipid. I show that this trapped lipid locks MacB into an open state, allowing for substrate entry into the pump. I contextualise the results by comparing MD simulations to MacB-like structures and propose a revised mechanism of transport as a function of its free-energy landscape. Lastly, I explore the use of cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET) as a method to obtain *in vivo* structural insights. I show that the use of “ghost” partially lysed *E. coli* can produce high-contrast specimens for tomography. I collect a tomographic dataset of “ghost” MacAB-TolC containing cells and apply subtomogram averaging. Preliminary results suggest that MacAB-TolC forms an array in cells, and that MacB is structurally flexible, likely in its nucleotide-binding domain. Together, these studies of the MacAB-TolC efflux pump and the T1SS shed light on their function and suggest new avenues of research to explore in order to fulfil the goal of finding novel inhibitors.","abstract_html":"Membranes confer cells with individual identity and capacity to regulate their response to their environment. A critical aspect of having a membranous partition is the ability to transport substances into and out of cells as part of life-sustaining functions. In pathogenic bacteria, transporters aid infection and survival in the host. Two such transporters in Gram-negative bacterial species are the MacA-MacB-TolC (MacAB-TolC) antibiotic efflux pump and the Type I Secretion System (T1SS), responsible respectively for antibiotic resistance and export of protein virulence factors. To pass the Gram-negative envelope in a one-step translocation process, both machines use a tripartite system, consisting of outer membrane protein TolC, a periplasmic adapter protein (MacA or haemolysin D (HlyD) in the T1SS), and an inner membrane protein (MacB or haemolysin B (HlyB) in the T1SS). Both use the power of ATP-hydrolysis to export their substrates. Here, I utilise computational and experimental approaches to elucidate the mechanism of function for both machines. I conduct molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of membrane embedded HlyB component of the T1SS with and without its haemolysin A (HlyA) substrate as *in silico* experiments. I also conduct MD simulations with and without substrate for a related peptidase. I show that substrate recognition is via conserved charge-charge interactions. I also show that HlyB has an asymmetric preferential interaction with cardiolipin when its substrate is present, which is not seen in the peptidase simulations. I propose that this preference is part of the mechanism of transport, with cardiolipin providing energy via the proton-motive force. I test this hypothesis through flow cytometry detection of labelled substrate trapped T1SS in a mixed population of cells, by comparing parental MG1655 *Escherichia coli* with a cardiolipin deficient MG1655 strain. I found that the cardiolipin deficient strain has reduced T1SS levels compared to its parent. To aid structural studies, I optimise the expression of the T1SS using a flow cytometry based sequential design strategy where conditions are iteratively tested via detection of substrate trapped T1SS and updated until no more improvement can be made. I also test purification strategies for single-particle cryo-electron microscopy studies. Finally, I apply further bioinformatic approaches and synthesise my computational and experimental results to propose a mechanism of transport and suggest future experimental tests. I conduct MD simulations of MacB in membrane with and without a trapped lipid. I show that this trapped lipid locks MacB into an open state, allowing for substrate entry into the pump. I contextualise the results by comparing MD simulations to MacB-like structures and propose a revised mechanism of transport as a function of its free-energy landscape. Lastly, I explore the use of cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET) as a method to obtain *in vivo* structural insights. I show that the use of “ghost” partially lysed *E. coli* can produce high-contrast specimens for tomography. I collect a tomographic dataset of “ghost” MacAB-TolC containing cells and apply subtomogram averaging. Preliminary results suggest that MacAB-TolC forms an array in cells, and that MacB is structurally flexible, likely in its nucleotide-binding domain. Together, these studies of the MacAB-TolC efflux pump and the T1SS shed light on their function and suggest new avenues of research to explore in order to fulfil the goal of finding novel inhibitors.","abstract_has_math":false,"creators":["Kirykowicz, Angela Mary"],"institution":"University of Cambridge","degree_name":"Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)","degree_level":"Doctoral","degree_discipline":null,"degree_department":null,"school":null,"contributors":[],"advisors":["Luisi, Ben","Zhang, Peijun"],"committee_chairs":[],"committee_members":[],"year":2023,"date_issued":"2023-09-29","date_published":"2023-09-29","updated_at":"2026-07-22T22:24:07Z","subjects":["antibiotic efflux pumps","bacterial secretion systems","cryo-electron microscopy","cryo-electron tomography","macab-tolc","molecular dynamics","type I secretion system"],"languages":["eng"],"rights":[],"rights_urls":["https://apollo8-f-pro.lib.cam.ac.uk/bitstreams/1338b757-a2eb-469a-940c-0d719d956090/download","https://www.rioxx.net/licenses/all-rights-reserved/"],"identifier_entries":[]},"links":{"outbound_url":"https://doi.org/10.17863/CAM.105459","outbound_label":"DOI","outbound_source":"dc:identifier.doi"},"metadata_groups":[{"id":"people","label":"People","entries":[{"key":"dc:contributor.advisor","label":"Advisor","values":["Luisi, Ben","Zhang, Peijun"]},{"key":"dc:contributor.sponsor","label":"Sponsor","values":["Diamond Doctoral Scholarship (via United Kingdom Research Institute, UKRI) European Research Council"]},{"key":"dc:creator","label":"Author","values":["Kirykowicz, Angela Mary"]}]},{"id":"academic_context","label":"Academic Context","entries":[{"key":"dc:date.issued","label":"Date","values":["2023-09-29"]},{"key":"dc:publisher.institution","label":"Dc Publisher Institution","values":["University of Cambridge"]},{"key":"dc:relation.isreferencedby.uri","label":"Dc Relation Isreferencedby URI","values":["https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/363352"]},{"key":"dc:type","label":"Dc Type","values":["Thesis"]},{"key":"dc:type.qualificationlevel","label":"Dc Type Qualificationlevel","values":["Doctoral"]},{"key":"dc:type.qualificationname","label":"Dc Type Qualificationname","values":["Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)"]}]},{"id":"subjects_keywords","label":"Subjects and Keywords","entries":[{"key":"dc:subject","label":"Dc Subject","values":["antibiotic efflux pumps","bacterial secretion systems","cryo-electron microscopy","cryo-electron tomography","macab-tolc","molecular dynamics","type I secretion system"]}]},{"id":"language_rights","label":"Language and Rights","entries":[{"key":"dc:language","label":"Dc Language","values":["eng"]},{"key":"dc:rights","label":"Dc Rights","values":["https://apollo8-f-pro.lib.cam.ac.uk/bitstreams/1338b757-a2eb-469a-940c-0d719d956090/download","https://www.rioxx.net/licenses/all-rights-reserved/"]}]},{"id":"identifiers","label":"Identifiers","entries":[{"key":"dc:identifier.doi","label":"DOI","values":["https://doi.org/10.17863/CAM.105459"]},{"key":"dc:identifier.uri","label":"Identifier URI","values":["https://apollo8-f-pro.lib.cam.ac.uk/bitstreams/fada7826-f472-464c-87d9-ae6f9d2354e0/download"]}]},{"id":"additional","label":"Additional Metadata","entries":[{"key":"dc:description.abstract","label":"Abstract","values":["Membranes confer cells with individual identity and capacity to regulate their response to their environment. A critical aspect of having a membranous partition is the ability to transport substances into and out of cells as part of life-sustaining functions. In pathogenic bacteria, transporters aid infection and survival in the host. Two such transporters in Gram-negative bacterial species are the MacA-MacB-TolC (MacAB-TolC) antibiotic efflux pump and the Type I Secretion System (T1SS), responsible respectively for antibiotic resistance and export of protein virulence factors. To pass the Gram-negative envelope in a one-step translocation process, both machines use a tripartite system, consisting of outer membrane protein TolC, a periplasmic adapter protein (MacA or haemolysin D (HlyD) in the T1SS), and an inner membrane protein (MacB or haemolysin B (HlyB) in the T1SS). Both use the power of ATP-hydrolysis to export their substrates. Here, I utilise computational and experimental approaches to elucidate the mechanism of function for both machines. I conduct molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of membrane embedded HlyB component of the T1SS with and without its haemolysin A (HlyA) substrate as *in silico* experiments. I also conduct MD simulations with and without substrate for a related peptidase. I show that substrate recognition is via conserved charge-charge interactions. I also show that HlyB has an asymmetric preferential interaction with cardiolipin when its substrate is present, which is not seen in the peptidase simulations. I propose that this preference is part of the mechanism of transport, with cardiolipin providing energy via the proton-motive force. I test this hypothesis through flow cytometry detection of labelled substrate trapped T1SS in a mixed population of cells, by comparing parental MG1655 *Escherichia coli* with a cardiolipin deficient MG1655 strain. I found that the cardiolipin deficient strain has reduced T1SS levels compared to its parent. To aid structural studies, I optimise the expression of the T1SS using a flow cytometry based sequential design strategy where conditions are iteratively tested via detection of substrate trapped T1SS and updated until no more improvement can be made. I also test purification strategies for single-particle cryo-electron microscopy studies. Finally, I apply further bioinformatic approaches and synthesise my computational and experimental results to propose a mechanism of transport and suggest future experimental tests. I conduct MD simulations of MacB in membrane with and without a trapped lipid. I show that this trapped lipid locks MacB into an open state, allowing for substrate entry into the pump. I contextualise the results by comparing MD simulations to MacB-like structures and propose a revised mechanism of transport as a function of its free-energy landscape. Lastly, I explore the use of cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET) as a method to obtain *in vivo* structural insights. I show that the use of “ghost” partially lysed *E. coli* can produce high-contrast specimens for tomography. I collect a tomographic dataset of “ghost” MacAB-TolC containing cells and apply subtomogram averaging. Preliminary results suggest that MacAB-TolC forms an array in cells, and that MacB is structurally flexible, likely in its nucleotide-binding domain. Together, these studies of the MacAB-TolC efflux pump and the T1SS shed light on their function and suggest new avenues of research to explore in order to fulfil the goal of finding novel inhibitors."]},{"key":"dc:format.checksum.md5","label":"Dc Format Checksum Md5","values":["bcae81d17891434e79046db2ffddc2b8","87eda9de84448d1f82354d60eee3eb5f"]},{"key":"dc:title","label":"Title","values":["Structure & Function of Bacterial Transport Machines in their Cellular Context"]}]}],"canonical_facts":{"dc:contributor.advisor":["Luisi, Ben","Zhang, Peijun"],"dc:contributor.sponsor":["Diamond Doctoral Scholarship (via United Kingdom Research Institute, UKRI) European Research Council"],"dc:creator":["Kirykowicz, Angela Mary"],"dc:date.issued":["2023-09-29"],"dc:description.abstract":["Membranes confer cells with individual identity and capacity to regulate their response to their environment. A critical aspect of having a membranous partition is the ability to transport substances into and out of cells as part of life-sustaining functions. In pathogenic bacteria, transporters aid infection and survival in the host. Two such transporters in Gram-negative bacterial species are the MacA-MacB-TolC (MacAB-TolC) antibiotic efflux pump and the Type I Secretion System (T1SS), responsible respectively for antibiotic resistance and export of protein virulence factors. To pass the Gram-negative envelope in a one-step translocation process, both machines use a tripartite system, consisting of outer membrane protein TolC, a periplasmic adapter protein (MacA or haemolysin D (HlyD) in the T1SS), and an inner membrane protein (MacB or haemolysin B (HlyB) in the T1SS). Both use the power of ATP-hydrolysis to export their substrates. Here, I utilise computational and experimental approaches to elucidate the mechanism of function for both machines. I conduct molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of membrane embedded HlyB component of the T1SS with and without its haemolysin A (HlyA) substrate as *in silico* experiments. I also conduct MD simulations with and without substrate for a related peptidase. I show that substrate recognition is via conserved charge-charge interactions. I also show that HlyB has an asymmetric preferential interaction with cardiolipin when its substrate is present, which is not seen in the peptidase simulations. I propose that this preference is part of the mechanism of transport, with cardiolipin providing energy via the proton-motive force. I test this hypothesis through flow cytometry detection of labelled substrate trapped T1SS in a mixed population of cells, by comparing parental MG1655 *Escherichia coli* with a cardiolipin deficient MG1655 strain. I found that the cardiolipin deficient strain has reduced T1SS levels compared to its parent. To aid structural studies, I optimise the expression of the T1SS using a flow cytometry based sequential design strategy where conditions are iteratively tested via detection of substrate trapped T1SS and updated until no more improvement can be made. I also test purification strategies for single-particle cryo-electron microscopy studies. Finally, I apply further bioinformatic approaches and synthesise my computational and experimental results to propose a mechanism of transport and suggest future experimental tests. I conduct MD simulations of MacB in membrane with and without a trapped lipid. I show that this trapped lipid locks MacB into an open state, allowing for substrate entry into the pump. I contextualise the results by comparing MD simulations to MacB-like structures and propose a revised mechanism of transport as a function of its free-energy landscape. Lastly, I explore the use of cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET) as a method to obtain *in vivo* structural insights. I show that the use of “ghost” partially lysed *E. coli* can produce high-contrast specimens for tomography. I collect a tomographic dataset of “ghost” MacAB-TolC containing cells and apply subtomogram averaging. Preliminary results suggest that MacAB-TolC forms an array in cells, and that MacB is structurally flexible, likely in its nucleotide-binding domain. 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