Reciprocating with Ibu Pretiwi : social organisation and the importance of plants, land and the ancestors in Nusa Penida
Between Bali and Lombok lies a small archipelago of three limestone islands. The largest of these islands, known as Nusa Penida has been considered by former Balinese scholars to preserve characteristic aspects of the old Balinese social organisation. This study, which is based upon long fieldwork conducted in the village of Sakti, discusses the social organisation of Nusa Penida and the importance land and plants have in the life of its inhabitants. The work begins with an examination of the historical data concerning the division of the island into two parts, and with an evaluation of the role the paramount temples of Pura Penataran Ped and Pura Batu Medau have in the present social organisation of Nusa Penida. Further analysis addresses the traditional definitions of desa and banjar, their significance in contemporary Nusa Penida, and investigates the role played in the banjar life by the jero, jaba and prabali groups. The function of origin groups (dadia), and the importance of reciprocity in the banjar life is also considered. From this perspective, I have argued that the distinctiveness of the island should not be defined by simple references to old Balinese customs and social organisation, but should be considered in terms of similarities with both the area of Bali between the plains and the mountains and with eastern Indonesian societies. An analysis of the role of land, plants, spirits and ancestors develops ideas of the interconnections between human beings and the world of flora. In this context the significance of the rituals for clearing the forest is explored, the association between human and natural fertility, and the importance of spirits inhabiting the land that may be directly, or indirectly, associated with the uncremated ancestors. The presentation of floral folk classificatory notions provides the framework for the exposition of some key Balinese categories, while an investigation of the concept of 'botanic idiom' outlines the significance of the metaphorical and practical links between plants and society in Nusa Penida. A discussion of the cycle of reciprocity that binds together land, human beings, plants and gods provides the opportunity to argue the interdependence of all these elements and the centrality of reciprocity between humans, plants and earth in the material and spiritual reproduction of this society. The link between humans and flora is further developed through the presentation of a set of examples concerning the most important plants and cereals grown in Nusa Penida, their ethnobotany and ethnographic significance. In this context, among others, the coconut, banana, bamboo and maize, have been examined. In each case a discussion of the symbolism associated with the plants and their ritual use is offered. Particularly significant is the analysis of the maize agricultural and ritual cycle. While it diverges from the emphasis placed on rice in the Balinese area, this analysis brings together practical, social and religious issues characteristic of Nusa Penida. Finally, I have argued for the presence of a set of patterns that may account for the way plants are thought about and used in this society.
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