The Application of Heliaki (Imagery) in Tongan Songs and the Roles of Journalists and Censorial Punake in Their Censorship Between the 1960s and the Early 2000s
The censorship of hiva kakala (kakala songs) was a prominent feature of broadcasting practice at the Tonga Broadcasting Commission (TBC), formerly Radio ZCO and later A3Z, from the 1960s until the early 2000s. Despite its significance within Tongan cultural life, little scholarly attention has been given to understanding why composers were required to compose according to heliaki (imagery) and submit their songs for scrutiny before public broadcast. This study investigates the cultural, literary, and journalistic factors underlying the censorship of kakala songs and examines the role of heliaki in shaping the composition, regulation, and interpretation of the genre. Guided by the indigenous theoretical frameworks of Tupunga Ola and Veitalatala, the research employed a qualitative methodology based on interviews, documentary analysis, and critical examination of historical and contemporary literature. The study explored the perspectives of composers (punake), journalists (faiongoongo), and individuals involved in the censorship and promotion of kakala songs. The findings reveal that kakala song censorship functioned primarily as a form of cultural moderation rather than suppression. It also found that censorship occasionally generated tensions and accusations of inconsistency. However, the participants generally viewed the control as contributing to the preservation, enhancement, and artistic quality of kakala songs. Censorship was used to uphold the values embedded within the nofo ‘a kāinga system and fatungamotu‘a e fonua structure, moderate the effects of Westernisation and foreign cultural influences, and monitor the appropriate use of heliaki, one of Tonga’s foremost literary and linguistic registers. The study further demonstrates that Queen Sālote Tupou III and her Traditions Committee played a pivotal role in shaping both the development and regulation of the genre. A major contribution of this research is the reconceptualisation of kakala songs as songs of heliaki. By revising prevailing definitions of heliaki, the study develops a continuum that clarifies the relationship between literal and figurative language. It proposes an updated definition of heliaki as a system of figurative expression that produces vivid, evocative, and memorable imagery. Within this framework, heliaki is also understood as a literary mechanism in compositions and communications for safeguarding fefaka‘apa‘apa‘aki and fefuafatongia‘aki, promoting social hierarchies, while simultaneously enhancing the expressive and affective values of mālie and māfana. The study also introduces the first standardised framework of 30 lea ‘o e heliaki (figures of speech), together with the development of the ‘Ēkitu‘a Binary Cultural Identity model and the Toafesiama Translation Integration Framework. In addition, the study advances new understandings of mālie and māfana as evaluative principles governing artistic effectiveness and audience engagement. The thesis contributes to scholarship on Tongan literature, culture, journalism, translation, and censorship by providing a comprehensive account of the cultural systems that underpin kakala songs and their regulation. It further offers practical recommendations for curriculum development, journalism education, cultural policy, and the preservation of Tongan literary traditions in the contemporary digital era. Drawing on the newly developed Toafesiama model and the reconceptualisation of heliaki through the semantic–heliaki continuum, this study posits that lea heliaki (figurative language) and liliu lea (translation) are fundamental mechanisms that enable the preservation, adaptation, and sustainability of the Tongan language in changing cultural and linguistic contexts. The findings of this study indicate that liliu lea has become a widely utilised practice among Tongans in everyday communication. This development is attributable not only to the prevalence of English as a second language, but also to the fact that the majority of Tongans reside in the diaspora. Furthermore, translation has assumed a significant role in hiva kakala composition, where it functions as a form of heliaki that enhances the mālie quality of the songs.
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