The Dark Duo: Exploring Change and Tokenism in Colonial Ideologies

Inequality between coloniser and Indigenous groups in settler colonial contexts is reinforced by two colonial ideologies—historical negation, which relegates the responsibility to address colonial injustices to the past, and symbolic exclusion, which marginalises the Indigenous culture from the mainstream national identity (i.e., the ‘Dark Duo’). Yet, little is known about the development of the Dark Duo over time or tokenism within these ideologies, wherein the Indigenous culture is embraced (i.e., low symbolic exclusion) while reparations are avoided (i.e., high historical negation). Across four studies, this thesis addresses these gaps by examining mean-level and distinct trajectories of change in the Dark Duo over time and the presence, predictors, and outcomes of tokenism within the ideologies among a large nationwide sample of adults in Aotearoa New Zealand. Specifically, Study 1 explores the mean levels and rates of change in the Dark Duo among Pākehā (i.e., the settler colonisers) between 2009 and 2018, demonstrating a gradual decline in both ideologies over time. Attending to the rising conflict in public opinion on Indigenous rights, Study 2 then interrogates the distinct trajectories of change in the Dark Duo between 2009 and 2025, identifying ideological polarisation between a large progressive class of change and a smaller reactionary class. Political party support varies between classes. Given these subgroup differences in endorsement, Study 3 examines profiles of the Dark Duo, identifying pro-bicultural, moderate, and anti-bicultural profiles among Pākehā and Māori, as well as a tokenistic profile among Pākehā. Profile membership predicts support for bicultural political attitudes. To explore a possible cause of tokenism at the population level, Study 4 reveals that patriotism (but not nationalism) among settler colonisers predicts within-person increases in historical negation and decreases in symbolic exclusion over time (and vice versa). Collectively, these studies provide novel insights into the development of colonial ideologies over time and enrich our understanding of the subtle ways in which settler colonisers maintain their privilege. This thesis reinforces the need to challenge historical negation and symbolic exclusion whilst also revealing the capacity for ideological change and the ideological alignment of many settler colonisers with a shift towards Indigenous empowerment.

Name thesis:degree_name

PhD

Level thesis:degree_level

Doctoral

Discipline thesis:degree_discipline

Psychology

Grantor dc:publisher

ResearchSpace@Auckland

Year dc:date.issued

2025

Author dc:creator

• Bertenshaw, Zoe

Advisors dc:contributor.advisor

• Osborne, Danny
• Sibley, Chris

• Settler Colonialism
• Biculturalism
• Ideology
• Colonial Ideology
• Colonisation
• Indigenous Rights
• Political Attitudes
• Longitudinal
• Quantitative
• Decolonisation
• Post-colonial
• Social Change
• Inequality
• Political Ideology
• Bicultural Policy
• Racial Inequality
• Ethnic Inequality
• Intergroup Processes
• Intergroup Attitudes

Statement dc:rights

• Items in ResearchSpace are protected by copyright, with all rights reserved, unless otherwise indicated.

Licence dc:rights.uri

• https://researchspace.auckland.ac.nz/docs/uoa-docs/rights.htm

Handle dc:identifier.uri

https://hdl.handle.net/2292/75958

OAI identifier oai:identifier

oai:researchspace.auckland.ac.nz:2292/75958